A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE

ON

THE COMPARATIVE METHOD.

" The spirit of antiquity, — enshrined In sumptuous buildings, vocal in sweet song, In picture speaking with heroic tongue, And with devout solemnities entwined — Strikes to the seat of grace within the mind : Hence forms that glide with swan-like ease along, Hence motions, even amid the vulgar throng, To an harmonious decency confined, As if the streets were consecrated ground, The city one vast temple, — dedicate To mutual respect in thought and deed."

WORDSWORTH,

STYLES <? AGE OF GREEK* BYZANTINE, ROMANESQUE , GOTO 1C * RENAISSANCE REVIVALS &

V

GOTHICS 15 - 15 CENTf _J*

/- ' GOTHICS I3-I5CCNT"

THE TREE OF ARCHITECTURE,

Showing the main growth or evolution of the various styles.

The Tree must be taken as suggestive only, for minor influences cannot be indicated in a diagram of this kind.

t-

£

rf __. Q) j.l K s

•s

A

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE

ON THE COMPARATIVE METHOD '

FOR THE STUDENT, CRAFTSMAN, AND AMATEUR

BY PROFESSOR BANISTER FLETCHER, F.R.I.B.A.

(Formerly Professor of Architecture in King's College, London) AND

BANISTER F. FLETCHER, F.R.I.B.A., Architect

(University Extension Lecturer on Architecture ; Formerly Lecturer on Architecture,

King's College, London ; R.I.B.A. ' Godwin ' Bursar, 1893, ' Tite' Prize Medallist,

1895, Essay Medallist, 1896, Architectural Association Medallist for Design,

1888, Lecturer at the Architectural Association ; Hon. Corr.

Member of the American Institute of Architects ; Author of " Andrea Palladia, his Life and Works," etc.]

FIFTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED BY

BANISTER F. FLETCHER

WITH ABOUT TWO THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDON B. T. BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN

MCMV.

BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. L1X, PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.

PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.

IN the Preface to the Fourth Edition I explained the many important additions which had been made since the original publication of this book in 1896, and I desire to point out that in the present Edition the nature of the revision has been on an even more extensive scale, amounting to the rewriting of the greater portion of the work. While much new matter has been intro- duced, the importance of a thorough revision of that already existing has not been overlooked, the utmost care having been taken to verify all important statements and dates, and to amplify such descriptions where this appeared desirable. These remarks as to the text, apply equally to the illustrations, which have been increased by the addition of some 700, bringing their total up to about 2,000. Many of the subjects shown in the previous editions have been re-drawn and corrected in the light of the most recent discoveries.

The sale of four large editions in the space of a few years affords strong evidence that the book has been of service not only to the strictly professional student and those connected with design in its application to the minor arts and crafts, but also to that larger body of amateurs to whom Architectural History is year by year becoming a matter of lively interest. It is gratifying to know that it has been adopted as a text-book in Art Schools and in the leading Colleges and Technical Institutions of Great Britain, the United States of America, and Australia, for it is upon these centres we must depend for the formation of a cultivated taste, and the future growth of interest in the Arts.

Many causes have combined in helping towards the proper appreciation and enthusiasm for architecture and the arts of design, among which the greatly increased facilities for travel, the conducted educational tours now so popular, and the general interest in photography are undoubtedly important factors.

The History of Architecture has, however, until recent years

viii PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.

been a sealed book to many who have wandered amongst the most beautiful creations of the building art without being able to understand their meaning or appreciate their quality — a Grecian temple, a Roman amphitheatre, or a Gothic cathedral recalling to them none of the evidences which render each a reflection of its own period in history, and which give to each ancient building a special attraction, besides adding greatty to the interest and enjoyment of its examination.

Architecture has been described very truly as the printing press of all ages, and it appears probable that in these days of enlighten- ment the study of Architectural History will soon take its proper place as part of a liberal education. It is surely remarkable that it should for so long have been neglected, for is it not the art with which everyone is brought into daily contact, which shelters us from the elements and gives us " Home," which enshrines and illuminates the most sacred of our thoughts, which is the outcome of conditions intimately bound up with the history of the human race, and, finally, is it not the mother of all other arts, since from it sprang sculpture, painting, and the decorative crafts of the succeeding ages ?

The time spent in the study of the architecture of the past will, therefore, never be regretted, for every ruin tells of the history of other days, and enables the character and conditions of men of past periods to be conjured up, thus opening wide to all students and lovers of old buildings the enjoyment of contem- plating forms which will then have for them a meaning and a charm.

I am indebted to my brother, Mr. H. Phillips Fletcher, F.R.I.B.A., for helpful criticism in this edition, and to my pub- lisher for his care in the revision of the bibliography and in the general production of the book.

It should, perhaps, be mentioned that, owing to the death of Professor Banister Fletcher, the revision of the fourth and of the present edition has been carried out by me.

BANISTER F. FLETCHER.

29, NEW BRIDGE STREET,

LUDGATE CIRCUS, E.G. New Year's Day, 1905.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

THE Authors' aim in writing this book has been, not only to give in clear and brief form the characteristic features of the archi- tecture of each people and country, but also to consider those influences which have contributed to the formation of each special style.

They are of opinion that in published works upon the subject, Architecture has often been too much isolated from its surround- ings, and that the main points of the physical geography, social progress, and historical development of each country require to be understood by those who would study and comprehend its particular style.

In order to bring out the effects of these influences, and also the qualities of the styles themselves, a comparative and analytical method has been adopted, so that by the contrast of qualities the differences may be more easily grasped. For instance, the special character of Gothic architecture becomes manifest when put in comparison with the Classic and Renaissance styles ; and, further- more, the shades of difference in the local or national phases of each, can also be equally drawn out by a similar comparative treatment.

The styles themselves are then analysed and the parts con- trasted ; the analysis being carried out on the basis of the essential parts which every building possesses. As this system pervades the whole book, either the influences, character, examples, or comparative features of each style, can be contrasted with those in any other style. This then is the scheme of the book, which has been divided into five sections in each period, as follows : —

i. INFLUENCES. i. Geographical, ii. Geological, iii. Climate.

X PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

1. INFLUENCES — continued. iv. Religion.

v. Social and Political, vi. Historical.

2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER.

3. EXAMPLES OF BUILDINGS.

4. COMPARATIVE.

A. Plan, or general distribution of the building.

B. Walls, their construction and treatment.

C. Openings, their character and shape.

D. Roofs, their treatment and development.

E. Columns, their position, structure, and decoration.

F. Mouldings, their form and decoration.

G. Ornament, as applied in general to any building.

5. REFERENCE BOOKS.

SECTION i is divided into the six leading influences that may be expected to shape the architecture of any country or people, the first three being structural, the next two the civilizing forces, and the last containing those external historical events which may alter or vary the foregoing.

SECTION 2 describes the character of the architecture, that is, its special quality, and the general effect produced by the buildings as a whole.

SECTION 3 contains the examples, i.e. the chief buildings in each style, briefly named and described, being the corpus, which the preceding influences affect and from which the subsequent comparative analysis is deduced.

SECTION 4 is this comparative analysis, in which every style of architecture is regarded as the solution of certain fundamental problems, i.e. each building must have all or most of the parts A to G, and consequently there is both interest and instruction to be gained in learning and comparing how each style has solved these points of the problem.

SECTION 5 gives authorities and more especially directs the reader who wishes to pursue the study of any style in further detail.

In treating of the buildings themselves under Section 3 the authors have endeavoured to avoid long descriptions, which are

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. XI

necessarily technical and intolerably dry, and difficult to follow, even by those who have had the technical training, and have either the building or complete drawings of it before them. They have therefore provided the largest possible number of illustrations, and have confined the text to brief, but it is hoped vivid, notes of the special qualities and characteristics of the building referred to. It is hoped that the book will appeal not only to students who require an outline of architectural history as part of their artistic and professional education, but also to the increasing number of art workers who are interested in architecture in its relation to those accessory arts in which they are engaged. Lastly ; it is believed that a work in which architecture is treated as a result and record of civilization, will prove attractive to that increasing public which interests itself in artistic development.

29, NEW BRIDGE STREET, LUDGATE CIRCUS, E.G.

New Year's Day, 1896.

Xi/i

CONTENTS.

PAGE

List of Illustrations xv— li

Prehistoric Architecture .......... i

PART I.— THE HISTORICAL STYLES.

General Introduction ........... 4

Egyptian Architecture .......... 9

Western Asiatic Architecture ..... .... 32

Greek Architecture ........... 45

Roman Architecture . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1

Early Christian Architecture . . . . . . . . .176

Byzantine Architecture .......... 192

Romanesque Architecture in Europe (General Introduction) . . .217 Italian Romanesque .......... 228

French Romanesque .......... 246

German Romanesque .......... 258

Gothic Architecture in Europe (General Introduction) .... 267

English Architecture . . . . . . . . . .278

Anglo-Saxon .....>...... 3.27

Norman ......... .... 328

Early English Gothic . . . • .-' V . . . . . • 335

Decorated Gothic .... . . . . . . .341

Perpendicular Gothic . . .. .... . . . 349

Tudor /\ . • • • • 356

Scottish Architecture ." 359

Irish Architecture . . . ' . . . ... . . . 3°°

French Gothic Architecture . . . .. ". • • . - 362

Belgian and Dutch Gothic . . . . . • 385

German Gothic 393

Italian Gothic . ; . . 4°4

Spanish Gothic . . ' • • 424

Renaissance Architecture (General Introduction) ... . . ' . 437

Italian Renaissance Architecture . . . • • ... ^446

The Florentine School "446

The Roman School 456

The Venetian School . .' . . „. . . • • -475 Vicenza and Verona ........ 4^8

XIV CONTENTS.

Italian Renaissance Architecture — continued. PAGE

\s Milan and Genoa .......... 495

i- The Rococo Style 496

U French Renaissance Architecture . . , . . . . . 497

V German Renaissance . . . . . . . . . 5^7

Belgian and Dutch Renaissance . . . . . . . . .527

Spanish Renaissance ....../..... 533

English Renaissance Architecture .. f ...... 545

The Elizabethan Style . . . \ . . . . 551

The Jacobean Style . . . 561

The Anglo-Classic (Seventeenth Century) Style • \ • • • . 567

The Queen Anne (Eighteenth Century) Style/ . \ . . . 578

The Nineteenth Century Style (1800-1851) . . • . '. . . 589

,, ,, 1851 to present time . 593

British Colonial Architecture . . . . • . . . . 597

Architecture in the United States . . 598

PART II.— THE NON-HISTORICAL STYLES.

General Introduction ........... 603

Indian Architecture . . . . . . . . . . , 605

1. The Buddhist Style 612

2. The Jaina Style . . . . . . . . . , 614

3. The Hindu Style 618

(a) Northern Hindu ...... \. 618

(b) Chalukyan . . . . . . . . A . . 623

(c) Dravidian \.\ . . 628

Chinese and Japanese Architecture ..... /"A . , 634 Ancient American Architecture . . . . . , ... .652

Saracenic Architecture . . . . . . , \ . , 653

Arabian .......... \, 657

Syrian ............ 659

Egyptian 659

Spanish 663

Persian 667

Turkish 669

Indian . .671

Glossary of Architectural Terms . . . . . . . .687

Index 697

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XV11

GREEK ARCHITECTURE.

No. Name,

14. Map of Greece.

^5. Pelasgic System of Construction.

Treasury of Athens, section ... A ,, ' ,, plan B

Portion of shaft of column . . . c

Capital of a column D

The Gate of Lions, Mycenae E

Acropolis at Tiryns, plan F

16. Greek Examples— I.

Greek Construction —

Portico of Parthenon, half elevation . A ,, ,, half transverse

section . . B

,, ,, part plan . . c

S. W. angle of Parthenon as restored . D, E, F

Restoration of a Doric entablature . . G, H, j S.W. angle of Parthenon as at present . K, L

17. Plan of the Acropolis at Athens

18. Greek Examples— II.

Comparative plans of various forms of Temples.

19. Greek Examples— III.

The Doric Order- Temple of Ceres at Paestum ... A Temple of Neptune (the Great Temple)

at Paestum ..... B

Temple of Aphaia on the Island of

^Egina ...... c

Temple of Theseus (The Theseion),

Athens D

The Parthenon (Temple of Athena),

Athens ...... K

Temple of Apollo, at Delos . . ." F

20. Greek Examples— IV.

Temple of Aphaia (Jupiter Panhellenius)

at JEgina, —

,, ,, ,, west pediment

,, ,, east elevation

,, ,, ,, transverse section

,, ., ,, longitudinal sec-

tion ^y.^ •

,, ,, ,» plan . . " I

,, ,, ,, view of upper

Acroterion

ridge

Acroterion

tile. View of lower

Acroterion Antefixse .

Authorities.

Gailhabaud.

f Perrot and { Chipiez.

I Gailhabaud.

^Cockerell.

Penrose. f Perrot and ( Chipiez.

Penrose. f Penrose and I others.

Stuart and

Revett,

Cockerell.

>C.R. Cockerell.

F.A.

XV111

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. Name.

21. Greek Examples— V.

The so-called Theseion, or Temple of Hephaestos —

„ , , east elevation ? ' .

,, ,, transverse section .

,, ., half south elevation, half

longitudinal section of ambulatory . ./ plan . . (.

,, ,, plan of existing Lacunaria

,, ,, Metopes, north and

south sides

., ,, setting out of flutes

, , , , section of entablature

, , , , frieze of west cella wall .

,, ,, plan of cornice looking

up | .

,, ,, detail elevation of enta-

blature

22. The Theseion, Athens ....

23. Greek Examples— VI.

The Parthenon, Athens : longitudinal

section .

,, ,, (half se

Naos

,, ,, half se

Opist

,, ,, east fa9ade

,, ,, view fror

., ,, sectional

end ,, „ view of

angle plan . ,, ,, method

columns . ,, ,, statue of

Parthenos

24. The Parthenon, Athens. View of angle

25. Greek Examples— VII.

Comparative Restorations of the Methods of Lighting the Interiors of Greek Temples —

Method of lighting by clerestory .

Method of lighting by skylight

26. Greek Examples— VIII.

The Propylaea, Athens, west fa9ade . ,, „ longitudinal section

,, „ details of Interior

Order i, ., cornice looking up

Authorities.

Stuart and Revett.

J Photo.

Michaelis.

>n through	B	1 Penrose and
>n through		others.
lomus	c	J
		(Stuart and
B	D	1 Revett.
north-east	E	Michaelis.
iew of east
.	F
north-west		!• Penrose.
	G	J
.	H	Various.
Df jointing		}• Penrose.
	J	J
f Athena

Photo.

Fergusson. Botticher.

> Penrose.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XIX

No,

Name.

Authorities.

26. Greek Examples — VIII. — continued.

The Propylaea, section through mutule . „' „ plan .

„ „ transverse section

27. Greek Examples — IX.

Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassae — ,, north elevation ,, • transverse section ,, plan ,, long, section ,, detail of Interior

Order . ,, ,, plan of Interior

Order .

, , , , detail of single Corin-

thian column

,, ,, details of capital of

Corinthian column

,, ,, setting out of flutes .

., ,, large details of

mouldings .

28. Greek Examples— X.

The Temple of Neptune, Psestum, plan .

,, ,, long, section

,, ,, elevation

Temple at Paestum (the Basilica), plan .

,, ,, elevation .

Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae,

plan

,, ,, ,, elevation .

,, ,, ,, section

Choragic monument of Lysicrates, Athens

Plan, elevation, and section . Tower of the Winds, Athens, elevation . ,, ,, „ ,, section

„ ,, ,, „ plan.

Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigen- tum, Sicily, plan . . . . Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigen- tum, Sicily, section .... Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigen- tum, elevation .....

29. Greek Examples — XI.

The Ionic Order- Temple on the Ilissus . . . The Erechtheion, east portico The Archaic Temple of Diana, Ephesus . Temple of Minerva Polias at Priene Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae . Temple at Eleusis . . . . ~; -\. •

30. Greek Examples — XII.

The Erechtheion, Athens, sketch from

N.w. ; . w • /., '

east elevation S--'} - **<"' «

E

F \ Penrose.

G J

E F G

H, J K

L, M, N j

> Cockerell.

Gailhabaud,

Durand.

Cockerell.

• Stuart and Revett.

Cockerell. I (Vol. IV. Stuart (and Revett's

' Athens.')

A. B, c, D ) Stuart and

.E, F, G J Revett.

H, j, K Murray.

L, M Mauch.

N, o, P Cockerell.

Q, R Mauch.

) Inwood,

A L Middleton B ) and others.

XX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No, Name.

30. Greek Examples — XII. — continued.

The Erechtheion, west elevation . ,, ,, section

,, ,, north elevation .

., ,, plan •

,, enlarged elevation of

Caryatid Porch

31. Greek Examples— XIII.

Temple of Diana at Ephesus, view 6? front fa9ade . . . \.

„ plan

Heraion at Olympia, plan

,, section ....

32. Choragic Monument of Lysicrates,

Athens

33-

and

The

34.

35.

Comparative Examples of Greek

Roman Corinthian Capitals. Capital of column to portico,

Pantheon, Rome .... Typical Roman Acanthus leaf .•«, . Plans of capital (A) looking up Diagram of relative sizes of Pantheon,

Rome, and the Stoa, Athens . . Angle view of capital from the Stoa,

Athens ......

Plans of capital, looking up . . . Typical example of Greek Acanthus leaf

Comparative Examples of Greek and

Roman Theatres.

Typical Greek theatre ...

Roman theatre at Orange

Greek Examples— XIV.

Mausoleum at Halicarnassos, transverse

section .... ,, half plans of basement and

peristyle

,, west fa?ade

,, enlarged capital, base and

entablature , , south fa9ade

,, three other restorations: —

36. Greek Examples— XV.

Lion Tomb, Cnidus, south elevation . ,, section '. .

,, west elevation

,, half plans of peristyle and

roof

,, plan through base . .

Sarcophagus from a tomb at Cnidus, end

elevation . , .

,, side elevation . . .

"Tomb of the Weepers'1

A

* B C

D, E

F G H

D

E F, G, H

Authorities.

Inwood, Middleton and others.

[ Murray.

Photo.

Taylor and Cresy, Stuart and Revett.

Cockerell.

Newton and Pullan.

> Society of Dilettanti.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XXI

No. Name.

37. Comparative Examples of Greek and

Roman Doorways. Doorway of the Pantheon, Rome, elevation ......

Doorway of the Pantheon, Rome, details Doorway, Erechtheion, Athens, elevation

,, ,, ,, details .

38. Comparative diagrams of the Greek and

Roman Orders of Architecture. Greek Doric — Temple of Theseus at

Athens ......

Roman Doric, by Vignola

Greek Ionic— Temple on the Ilissus,

Athens ......

Roman Ionic, by Scamozzi .

Greek Corinthian — Choragic Monument

of Lysicrates, Athens Roman Corinthian — Pantheon, Rome .

Comparison of Greek and Roman Mouldings— I

Comparison of Greek and Roman Mouldings— II

39-

40.

41. Greek Ornament— I.

The Ionic Volute —

Volute from Cyprian tomb . Capital from Egyptian wall painting Bronze armour plate from Tamassos, Cyprus . . ....

Capital from Neandria ....

Capital from the Heraion at Olympia Ionic Lycian tomb ....

Goldman's method of describing Ionic

Volute

Ionic Volute described by a whelk-shell Angle capital, N. portico of Erechtheion,

half section

,, half front view . .

,, side view ....

,, plan, looking up .

Temple of Nike Apteros, sketch of angle

42. Greek Ornament — II.

Scroll ornament from roof of choragic

Monument of Lysicrates, Athens Sanctuary of the Bulls, Delos —

enlarged triglyphs, side view . ,, ,, front view

enlarged capital, side view

,, ,, front view .

key plan .... plan of piers . ... elevation of piers . Canephora . . .. . .... ,.-. •

A B, c

D E to H

A to M

N to V

Authorities.

« Mauch and Donaldson.

} Stuart and | Revett.

Mauch. \ Stuart and J Revett.

Mauch. } Stuart and j Revett.

Taylor and Cresy.

Various.

1

) Stuart and Revett j" and Cockerell. Taylor and Cresy.

Dr. Richter.

Chambers.

Mauch.

J. Ward.

Stuart and Revett.

Durand.

XX11

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. Name.

42. Greek Ornament— II.— continued. Caryatid figure from Erechtheion

Typical Greek Anthemion

Funeral Stele with

43-

44-

45- 46.

47-

48. 49.

Greek Ornament— III.

Capital, Temple of Jupiter Olympius,

Athens ...... A

Capital, Tower of the Winds, Athens ./ B

Capital, choragic Monument of Lysic rates,

Athens c

Sculptures, from Tower of the Winds,

Athens . . . . . . D, E

Half elevation of Stele Head . . F

Greek Ornament — IV.

Honeysuckle ornament .... A

Lion's head, front B

„ side c

Crowning ornament, choragic Monument

of Lysicrates ..... D

Stele head E

Anta capital from Erechtheion . . F

Portion of frieze from Parthenon . . G

Metope from the Parthenon . . . H

Acanthus ornament . . . . j

Console from Erechtheion . . K, L

Portion of caryatid figure M

Antefixa ornnment N

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Map of the Roman Empire. Roman Examples — I.

Roman System of Construction —

Roman walling of concrete with brick

facing and methods of heating . . A to H

Roman vaulting and domes of concrete I to M

Plan of the Roman Fora

The Forum Romanum restored Roman Examples— II.

Temple of Fortuna Virilis, Rome, plan . ,, ,, front fa9ade

,, ,, flank facade .

Arch of Titus, Rome, section ,, ,, elevation

,, plan .

Arch of Goldsmith's or Silversmith's, Rome, view from the south-west ,, ,, section .

. , ,. plan

elevation

Authorities.

| Stuart and j Revett.

I Cockerell, Stuart and Revett.

J. C. Watt.

\ Stuart and j Revett.

J. C.Watt, Stuart and Revett.

1J. Henry j Middleton. A. Choisy.

1 Taylor and Cresy and others. f Joseph \ Gatteschi.

Taylor and Cresy.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. Name.

49. Roman Examples — \\.-contimted.

Temple of Saturn, Rome, plan . . L

,, ,, front fa9ade . . M

,, ,, details of entablature N

50. Roman Examples — III.

Temple of Venus and Rome, Rome, part

cross section . . A

,, ,, plan B

, , , , part front elevation . c

,, ,, long- section . . D

Temple of Diana at Nimes, plan . . E

,, ,, cross section . . F

,, ,, part long, section . G

Maison Carree, Nimes, plan H

,, ,, front elevation . . j

,, ,, part side elevation '. K

51. Maison Carree, Nimes . .

52. Roman Examples — IV.

Tomb at Mylassa, Asia Minor, half

elevation . . A ,, ,, half section . . B ,, perspective view . c ,, half plans of base- ment and peri- style D

Tomb of Caecilia Metella, Rome . . E

Tomb at Wadi-Tagije, North Africa . F Tomb at Dugga, near Tunis, plan and

view . . . . . . . G

Tomb at S. Remi in the South of France H Temple of Antoninus and Faustina,

Rome, plan . I

,, ,, front facade . j

,, ,, view of remains K

,, ,, flank facade . L

Temple of Mars Ultor, Rome, detail of corbel, cornice to

enclosing wall . . N

,, ,, detail of main cornice o

,, ,, plan P

53. Roman Examples — V.

Temples at Baalbec, Syria, half section . A

,, ,, half entrance fa?ade B

,, ,, long, section through

Great Temple . c ,, ,, transverse section,

Great Temple . D

,, „ plan E

Temple of Jupiter, section F

,, ,, fa9ade . . . G

54. Roman Examples — VI.

The Pantheon at Rome, section . . A

,, ,, ,, half-plan . B

Bronze mouldings round the " eye r . c, D

XX111

Authorities.

Palladio.

Palladio.

Photo.

Society of Dilettanti.

Sketches.

^ Taylor and Cresy.

| Durand, J^Dawkins, and Wood.

J

{ Taylor and j Cresy. J. H. Middleton.

xxiv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. 55- 56. 57-

58.

59-

60

61. 62.

63. 64.

Name.

The Pantheon, Rome. Interior view The Pantheon, Rome. .... Roman Examples— VII.

Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome, the

order and key plan A ,, ,, detail of capital . B

,, ,, keystone of arch . / C

,, ,, coffer from central

arch « D

The Pantheon, Rome, the order and key

plan . . . E ,, ,, capital, elevation and

half plan . . F ,, ,, details of capital . G

Temple of Vesta, Tivoli, the order and

key plan . . H ,, ,, detail of capital . J

,, ,, coffer to peristyle

ceiling . . K

Roman Examples — VIII.

Basilica of Maxentius, plan ... A

,, ,, long, section . c

,, ,. transverse section D

Basilica Ulpia, plan B

,, ,, interior view E

Roman Examples — IX.

Baths of Caracalla, Rome Plan (restored) Palace of Diocletian at Spalato ......

Roman Examples— X.

Pont du Card, Nimes, elevation

,, ,, „ section

Circus of Maxentius, near Rome, plan . Circular Temple of Baalbec, plan . ,, ,, ,, section

,, ,, ,, elevation .

Baths of Diocletian, section . ,, ,. elevation

plan Trajan's Column, elevation .

„ ,, section . . .

Pont du Gard, Nlmes . . . ,..%.

Roman Examples — XI.

The Colosseum, part elevation . . A ,, ,, section. . . B

,, ,, plan . . . c

The Colosseum ..... Amphitheatre, Verona ....

Authorities Piranesi. Photo.

, Taylor and ' Cresy.

J. H. Middleton.

A B	Gailhabaud. JR. Adam.
A B C	I Durand. Middleton.
D E F	I Durand.
G H	\ Cameron.
K J L	j ) Taylor and j Cresy.

Photo.

Taylor and Cresy.

Photo. Photo.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XXV

No.- Name.

65. Roman Examples — XII.

House of Pansa at Pompeii

?» j) ,, section.

«» »i\ ,, plan .

Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome u » ,, section

» ,, ,, elevations

>, , > ,, plans .

66. Arch of Septimius Severus

67. Roman Ornament — I.

Temple of Jupiter at Rome, capital Arch of Titus, keystone. Forum of Nerva, Rome, cornice . Pilaster Villa Medici, Rome . Temple of Mars Ultor, capital Pantheon, panel .....

68. Roman Ornament — II.

Temple of Jupiter Stator, Rome, details

of cornice

,, ,, plan of coffer .

;, ,, key elevation .

» ,, console, looking up .

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Rome, portion of frieze . '.•:.

Roman Corinthian pilaster capital, Pan- theon, Rome .....

Roman altar .....

Pilaster capitals . . . . * .

Etruscan candelabrum .

Pompeian candelabrum

Roman gladiator's helmets

Roman arm chair .....

69. Roman Ornament — III.

Arch of Titus, Rome : Figures in span- drels of main arch .... Baths of Titus, Rome : Wall fresco Bronze candelabra .... Typical Roman tripod altar . Typical Roman baths .... Rostral column ..... Mosaic pavement, Pompeii . Roman chariot ..... Typical Roman tomb .

70. Principles of Proportion.

Tetrastyle, hexastyle, and octastyle form

of Temple

Arch of Trajan, Beneventum Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome Baptistery, Pisa . . . ;. •

Proportions of mediaeval cathedrals Section of Henry VII. 's Chapel Chapter House at Wells S. George's Chapel, Windsor Section of King's College Chapel .

Authorities.

A B

C

D, E F

A, C

B D, E

F

G

H

F G H J K

L, N M

A, C

B D, F

E G, J

H

K

L

M

A, B, C D F G H

J K L M

I Gailhabaud.

[• Gailhabaud. Photo.

) Taylor and j Cresy.

C. H. Tatham. ) Taylor and j Cresy.

Taylor and [ Cresy.

F. S. Meyer.

D'Agincourt. Durand. J. C. Watt.

v Durand.

J. C. Watt. Durand.

Gwilt.

XXVI

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. Name.

71. Optical Corrections in Architecture. Correction of apparent proportions Effect of color on proportions The Parthenon : Inclination of columns Method of drawing entasis of column The Parthenon : Optical corrections to

prevent appearance of sagging . Optical illusions caused by convex and concave curves, when diawn in relation to parallel straight lines

Authorities.

Pennethorne.

ViolleMe-Duc.

Pennethorne.

E, F, G A. Choisy.

H, J

EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.

72.	The Basilica Church of S. Clemente,
	Rome		Photo.
73-	Early Christian Examples — I.
	S. Clemente, Rome, section .	A	1-
	plan .	B
	Tomb of Theodoric, Ravenna, elevation.	c	(
	,, ,, ,, section . ,, ,, ,, plan	D E	• D'Agincourt.
	,, ,, ,, half plans	F, G
	Tomb of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, sections	H, J
	» » » ,, plan	K
74-	Basilica Church of S. Paul, Rome		Photo.
75-	Early Christian Examples— II.
	Basilica Church of S. Peter, Rome,
	elevation	A
	>, ,, ,, section	B
	» „ ,, plan	C	^•Durand.
	S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, plan .	D
	S. Paul, Rome, plan ....	E
	S. Stefano Rotondo, Rome, elevation .	F
	„ „ ,, section	G	- D'Agincourt.
	» » 5, plan .	H
	Baptistery of Constantine, Rome, plan .	J
	„ „ elevation .	K	Durand.
	,, ,, section	L
76.	Basilica Church of S. Maria Maggiore,
	Rome ....		Photo.
77-	S. Stefano Rotondo, Rome .		Photo.
78.	Early Christian Ornament.
	S. Paul, Rome, Corinthian column S. Lorenzo, floor mosaic S. Paul, Rome, composite column . Grado Cathedral, window	A B C D x	D'Agincourt. Digby Wyatt. D'Agincourt.
	S. Apollinare-in-Classe, Ravenna, sarco- phagus ....	'	Cattaneo.
	Window at Venice, eighth century.	F
	S. Agnes, Rome, mosaic in apse .	G	D'Agincourt.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XXV11

No. 78.

79-

80.

81. 82. 83.

84-

85- 86.

87.

Name.

Early Christian Ornament — continued. S. Giovanni, Rome, mosaic frieze in cloister ......

S. Clemente, Rome, parapet and pilaster S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, mosaic. S. Giovanni, mosaic floor

Authorities.

Digby Wyatt. Cattaneo. D'Agincourt. Digby Wyatt.

A. Choisy.

BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. Byzantine Examples — I.

Byzantine System of Construction.

Dome construction . . . . A, B ) Lethaby and

Method to find outline of pendentive . c, D j Swainson. S. Sergius, Constantinople, interior

view ....... E

S. Sergius, Constantinople, exterior view ....... F

S. Sergius, Constantinople, plan . . G Tomb of Galla Placidia, section . . H S. Sophia, Constantinople, sectional view ....... y

S. Sophia, Constantinople, exterior

view ....... K

Byzantine Examples — II.

S. Sophia, Constantinople, north-east

elevation ...... A

S. Sophia, Constantinople, longitudinal section ...... B

S. Sophia, Constantinople, ground plan c S. Sophia, Constantinople, exterior . Photo.

S. Sophia, Constantinople, interior . Photo.

Comparative Examples of Early Domed Structures. The Minerva Medica, Rome, plan . . A ,, ,, ,, section . B

S. Vitale, Ravenna, plan . ... c

,, ,, section . . . D

Cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle. plan E

,, ,, ,, section . F

Byzantine Examples — III.

S. Mark, Venice, section ... A . S. Mark, plan . . . . . c

S, Front, Perigueux, section B

S. Front, Perigueux, plan D

S. Mark, Venice, exterior . . . .

S. Mark, interior

Byzantine Examples — IV.

Cathedral at Athens, sketch ... A ,, plan B

W. and E., elevations . C, D

section ..... E Church of Theotokos, Constantinople,

W. and S. elevations . . F, o plan . . . . ; _ .' H longitudinal section '. j,".:r, .... J

\ Salzenberg.

Isabelle. Gailhabaud. Dehio and Von Bezold.

\ Gailhabaud.

Photo. Photo.

[• Gailhabaud. Gailhabaud.

XXV111

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No:

88.

89.

Name. from

S. Mark,

Byzantine Capitals

Venice

Byzantine Ornament.

S. Sophia, capital ....

Bowl and tile capital ....

S. Demetrius, Thessalonica, Ionic capital

,, Byzantine Corinthian

capital . S. Sophia, bird and basket capital

S. Demetrius, Bird Corinthian capital .

S. Sophia, window from the Gynaeceum, elevation ......

S. Sophia, window from the Gynaeceum. section

Authorities Photo.

f Lethaby and { Swainson.

Texier and j Pullan.

Salzenberg. J Texier and ( Pullan.

f- Salzenberg.

ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE

90. Map of Europe at the Death of Charles

the Great.

91. The Baptistery, Cathedral and Leaning

	Tower at Pisa' ....		Photo.
92.	Pisa Cathedral		Photo.
93-	S Miniato, Florence . .		Photo
94-	Italian Romanesque Examples.
	S. Michele, Pavia, part long, section	A	)
	, , , half cross section ,, , details of piers .	B C, D	[• Dartein.
	„ ^ , plan	E	j
	S. Christoforo Lucca, doorway, arch
	moulding	F	1
	Vvocpc
	» 5 9 UdoCO • • * ,, , elevation .	' H	[ Norman Shaw.
	,, , jamb mouldings	J	j
	"Comparative" treatment of Classic
	architrave .....	K
95-	S. Michele, Pavia		Photo.
96.	S. Zenone, Verona		Photo.
97-	Monreale Cathedral, Sicily .		Photo.
98.	Italian Romanesque Ornament.
	S. Clemente, Rome, doorway	A	Schultz.
	S. Paul beyond the Walls, Rome,
	cloisters .	g
	Cathedral at Bari, cornice	C	)
	Cathedral at Trani, cornice .	D	[ Schultz.
	„ ,, pilasters .	E, F	j
	S. Zenone, Verona, porch	G	Knight.
	S. Michel's Church, bishop's throne	H	o j
	S. Trinita, Venosa, capital . Cathedral at Molfetta, capitals	J K, L	[ Schultz.
	S . Paul, Rome, capital ....	M	j

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XXIX

No. Name

99. The Abbaye-aux-Dames, Caen

100. French Romanesque Examples.

Abbaye-aux-Hommes, exterior

,, transverse section

,, interior

,, plan .

Angouleme Cathedral, section ,, ,, plan .

,, ,, section through

dome ......

101. The Abbaye-aux-Hommes, Caen .

102. Porch of S. Trophhne, Aries .

103. French Romanesque Ornament.

Fleac, capital

Pontorson, corbel table .... Vaison, frieze ..... S. Trophime, capitals .... S. Paul-Trois-Chateau, archivolt . Abbaye-de-Montmajour, corbel Angouleme Cathedral, frieze . corbel .

D'Ouezy, capital ..... Plans of piers .....

104. Church of the Apostles, Cologne .

105. German Romanesque Examples.

Church of the Apostles, Cologne, part

elevation , , , , part section .

plan

Worms Cathedral, part elevation . ,, ,, part section

,, ,, transverse section

plan

106. Worms Cathedral .....

107. German Romanesque Ornament.

Limburg Cathedral, capitals . Church of S. Pantaleon, capital S. Gereon, Cologne, capital and base Worms Cathedral, cornice S. Gereon, Cologne, double capital Limburg Cathedral, towers . Worms Cathedral, capital and base Limburg Cathedral, capitals . Ilsenburg Cathedral, capital .

,, ,, column . .'...'.

Laach Abbey Church, window Worms Cathedral, doorway .

A, B c D E F G H J K

Authorities. Photo.

Pugin.

Sharpe.

Photo. Photo.

A B	i Ruprich-Robert.
C	)
D, E	\ Revoil.
F	J
G	|
H J	i- Ruprich-Robert.
K	j
L tO P

Photo.

[• Boisseree.

[•King. Photo.

Moller. 1 Boisseree.

King. Boisseree.

I Moller.

I Forster. Moller.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

No. Name.

108. Map of Mediaeval Europe, Thirteenth Century.

109. Principles of Gothic Construction.

Amiens Cathedral . . . . . A

S. Saviour, Southwark, vaulting com- partment . B ,, ,, setting out of

groined vault ( C, D

1 10. Comparative Views of Models of Con-

tinental Cathedrals.

Milan A

Evreux ....... B

Cologne ...... C

Vienna ....... D

Chartres E

in. Comparative Diagrams of Vaults and

Domes.

Roman cross vault .... A

Romanesque cross vault ... B

Byzantine and Renaissance domes . . c

Gothic vault ...... u

Renaissance cross vault . . . . . E

112. English Gothic Examples— I.

Comparative Examples, showing progress of

Gothic Vaulting.

Waggon vault ..... A

,, plan .... B

,, ,, stilted .... c

,, ,, showing diagonal and transverse groins D

Abbaye-aux-Hommes, sexpartite vaulting E ,, ,, external view . F

Peterborough, Norman vaulting . . G

,, ,, „ plan . H

Salisbury, Early English groined vaulting j, L Westminster Abbey, groined, with inter- mediate ribs . . . . . K, M Bristol Cathedral, Decorated Lierne vault N, o S. Mary, Redcliffe, Perpendicular stellar

vault interior view . . . . p, Q Gloucester, Cathedral, Perpendicular fan

vaulting . . . . . R, s

113. English Gothic Examples— II.

Types of Mediaeval Open Timber Roofs.

Stowe Bardolph Church, trussed rafter

roof A

Trinity Chapel, Cirencester, tie-beam

roof . . . . . ,-.-.• B

S. Mary Magdalen, Pulham, collar- braced roof . . . . - . c

Trunch Church, hammer-beam roof D

Authorities,

Viollet-le-Duc. •A. A. Notes.

Photos- by T. Thatcher.

W. R. Purchase.

Parker, and f others.

Brandon.

XXXI

Authorities.

Weale. Brandon.

Thomas Morris.

Photos by T. Thatcher.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. Name.

113. English Gothic Examples — II. — continued. Types of Mediaeval Open Timber Roofs —

continued. Middle Temple Hall, double hammer-

beam roof ..... E Ixworth Church, aisle roof F

New Walsingham, aisle roof G

Westminster Hall, hammer-beam roof . H Evolution of hammer-beam J

114. Comparative Views of Models of English Cathedrals — I.

Chichester Durham

Ely . . . c

Worcester . . . D

Rochester . . . E

Oxford . . F

Carlisle . . . . G

• Bristol . ..... H

115 Comparative Views of Models of English Cathedrals— II.

York ....... A

Chester ...... B

Peterborough ..... C

Exeter . . . . . . . L> Photos by

Winchester ...... E T. Thatcher.

Hereford ...... F

Wells ....... G

Gloucester . ..... H

116. Comparative Views of Models of English

Cathedrals— III.

Salisbury ...... A

Lincoln ...... B

Canterbury ...... C Photos by

Norwich ...... i> * T. Thatcher.

Ripon ....... E

Lichfield ...... F

117. English Gothic Examples — III.

Comparative Plans of English Cathedrals — i.

Ely ....... A 1 • Builder ' Cathe-

York ....... dral Series,

Winchester ...... I Storer, Britton,

Peterborough ..... Loftie, Murray,

Salisbury ...... I Willis.

Lincoln ......

118. English Gothic Examples— IV.

Comparative Plans of English Cathedrals— 2.

Worcester ...... A 1 'Builder Cathe-

Canterbury ...... B dral Series,

Gloucester7 . ..... c \ Loftie, Brit on,

Norwich ...... D I Storer, Willis,

Durham ..... E J Murray.

XXX11

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No.	Name.	Authorities.
119.	English Gothic Examples — V.
	Comparative plans of English Cathedrals — 3.
	S. Asaph	A
	Manchester	B
	Oxford	c
	Bangor . . . . . . . Exeter . . ' S. Albans . . . ...''.' Chichester Rochester ......	I) E /* G H	'Builder 'Cathe- dral Series, Loftie, Britton, Storer, Murray.
	Wells	J
	Southwell ......	K
	S. Stephen, Westminster	L
120.	English Gothic Examples — VI.	•
	Comparative plans of English Cathedrals — 4.
	Christ Church, Dublin ....	A
	Carlisle	B
	Llandaff	C
	Glasgow .... .	D	'Builder 'Cathe-
	S. Davids	E	dral Series.
	Chester	F [ Loftie, Britton,
	Ripon .......	G 1 Storer, Murray.
	Hereford ......	H
	Lichfield	J
	Bristol .	K. J
121.	Salisbury Cathedral, exterior .	Photo.
122.	English Gothic Examples— VII.

Comparative Examples of English Cathe- drals :

Peterborough, external bay . ,, detail of pier .

,, cross section .

,, internal bay .

Salisbury, external bay .... ,, part cross section .

„ internal bay .

123. Salisbury Cathedral, interior .

124. English Gothic Examples — VIII.

Comparative Examples of English Cathe- drals :

Lichfield, exterior .... ,, section

,, interior .....

Winchester, exterior ....

,, section . - . .

,, interior ....

125. Lincoln Cathedral, exterior

126. Lincoln Cathedral, interior

f Ruprich- Robert.

Britton.

Photo.

.Britton.

Photo. Photo.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. Name.

127. English Gothic Examples — IX.

Westminster Abbey :

Exterior ......

Section

Interior ......

Plan . ....

128. Henry VII. Chapel, Westminster Abbey.

129. Henry VII. Chapel, Westminster Abbey,

Fan Vaulting ....

130. English Gothic Examples — X.

Typical English Parish Church : S. Andrew. Heckington, Lines.

view

interior . plan

elevation section .

131. English Gothic Examples — XI.

Comparative Plans of English Domestic

Buildings : Tower of London ....

Oxburgh Hall

Kenilworth Castle .... Hat field House, plans .... Longford Castle . . . . . Stoke Park

Chevening House, plans

Holkham Hall

€32. English Gothic Examples— XII.

English Gothic Domestic Examples : Penshurst Place, elevation of great hall . ,, ,, section of roof

,, ,, chimney stack

,, ,, section of hall roof

., ., general plan

Lambeth Palace, cross sections

,, ,, plan and longitudinal

section

Chiddingstone, Kent, timber houses S. Mary's Hospital, Chichester, plan „ ,, ,, sections

133. S. George's Chapel, Windsor.

134. Saxon Architecture.

Earls Barton, tower .... ,, ,, window .... Deershurst, ,,

Earls Barton, doorway .... Repton. capital ..... Wickham, window Corhampton, impost Sompting, capital ..... S. Benets, Cambridge, capital

XXX111

Authorities.

D, E F G

H, J K

C, D E

F G

H, K

J

L M, N

[-J. Neale.

Photo. Photo.

I Bowman h and j Crowther.

Kerr.

» Gotch and ' ) Brown.

Kerr.

( " Vitruvius ( Britannicus.

Kerr.

-Dollman.

Photo.

y Parker and Bloxam.

Rickman.

F.A.

XXXIV

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. Name.

135- S. John's Chapel, Tower of London

136. English Gothic Examples— XIII.

Comparative Examples showing progress of English Gothic Cathedral Architecture : Ely Cathedral, nave, interior and exterior A Peterborough ,, ,, ,, B

Ripon, choir, interior and exterior . . c Ely, presbytery ,, ,, . / D

137. English Gothic Examples — XIV.

Comparative Examples showing progress of Engh'sh Gothic Cathedral Architecture (continued).

Lichfield Cathedral, nave, interior and

exterior ...... E

Ely choir, interior and exterior . . F .

Winchester, nave, interior and exterior . G

138. Iffley Church, Oxon

139. Norman Mouldings.

Lincolnshire, zigzag .... A

S. Contest, Caen, chevron B

Winchester, billet c

Canterbury ,, . . . . . D

Westminster, chevron E

North Hinksey „ F

Abbaye aux-Dames, billet G

Stoneleigh, double cone H

S. Peters-at-Gowts, nebule J

Iffley, Oxon., flower K

North Hinksey, beaks head . . . L

Lincoln, embattled . . . . M

140. English Gothic Examples — XV.

The Evolution of Gothic Spires in England :

S. Peter, Raunds, Northants ... A

S. John, Keystone, Hunts. B

S. Wulfran, Grantham, Lines. . . c

Salisbury Cathedral . D

S. Mary, Bloxham, Oxon. . . . E

S. Peter, Kettering, Northants. . . F

S. James, Louth, Lines. G

S. Michael, Coventry, Warwickshire . H

141. English Gothic Examples— XVI.

The Evolution of the Gothic Buttress :

Norman, Fountains Abbey . . . A

E. English, Southwell Minster . . .B

Decorated, S. Mary Magdalen, Oxford . c

Perpendicular, Divinity School, Oxford . n Detached Flying Buttress, Chapter Ho.

Lincoln ...... E

Flying Buttresses, Amiens and Kheims . F, Constructive principle of the Mediaeval

Church . . G

Authorities. Photo.

hSharpe.

[ Sharpe. Photo.

Pr.rker, Rick- man, Bloxam and others.

} C. Wickes.

Sketches

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XXXV

No. Name.

142. English Gothic Examples — XVII.

Comparative Examples showing progress of Gothic Tracery Development :

Lynchmere, plate tracery ... A

Woodstock ,, ., . . . B

Dorchester, bar tracery . . . c

Minster Lovel, bar tracery . . . D

Headington, plate tracery . . . E

Wimborne Minster, grouped lancet lights F

Warmington, grouped lancet lights . G

Long Wittenham, geometrical tracery . H

S. Mary Magdalen, curvilinear tracery . j

Duston, clerestory windows . . . K, I,

Great Milton, curvilinear tracery . . M

New College Chapel, rectilinear tracery. N

King's College Chapel ,, ,, . o

S. Mary, Dinan, Flamboyant example . p

143. English Gothic Examples— XVIII.

Comparative Examples of English Gothic Doorways :

Clare Church, elevation ... A

capital and base . - B

jamb moulding . . c

S. John, Cley half exterior and interior . D

capital and base . . E

arch mould F

jamb and arch mould . G

capital and base . . H

Merton Colle e Chapel, Oxford, elevation j

,, capital and base K ,, jamb and arch

moulds . L

, , jamb mould . M

Authorities.

Parker.

J. K. Colling.

Bowman and Crowther

Pugin.

144. English Gothic Examples— XIX.

Norman Font, Coleshill, Warwickshire . A E. English Font, Lackford, Suffolk . B Decorated Font, Offley, Herts . . c Perpendicular Font, ClympingCh, Sussex D Norman Piscina, Crowmarsh, Oxford- shire ....... E

E. English Piscina, Cowling, Suffolk . F

Decorated Piscina. Gt. Bedwin, Wiltshire G

Perpendicular Piscina, Cobham, Kent . H E. English Tabernacle, Warmington,

Northants ...... j

Norman Sedilia, S. Mary, Leicester . K

Decorated Tabernacle, Exeter Cathedral L

E. English Sedilia, Rushden, Northants M

Decorated Sedilia, Merton, Oxon . ' . N

Perpendicular Sedilia, S. Mary, Oxon . o

Parker. Braddon.

Parker.

C 2

XXXVI

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No,

Name,

145. English Gothic Examples — XX.

Pew, Steeple Aston, Oxon. .

Pulpit (External), Magdalene Coll.,

Oxford

Pulpit, Wolvercot, Oxon.

Eagle Lectern, Upwell S. Peter,

Norfolk

Roodloft, Handborough, Oxfordshire Parclose Screen, Geddington Ch.,

Northants ,

Prince Arthur's Chantry, Worcester

Cathedral

Authorities.

[ Parker.

j A. A. Sketch I Book. Parker.

[ J. K. Colling.

146. English Gothic Ornament — I.

Comparative Mouldings of the Periods of

Gothic Architecture :

" Norman" capitals, bases, piers . . I to 13

" Early English '" ., ,. 141025 "Decorated" .. ., . .261038

"Perpendicular ' ,. ,, . 39 to 54

147. English Gothic Ornament — II.

Comparative Selection of Gothic Ornaments

in Different Periods :

Early English dog-tooth ornament. . A

., ,, crocket . . . . j

,, parapet .... M

" Decorated " four-leaved flower . . B

ball flower c

tablet flower . . . D

typical crocket . . K

parapet N

" Perpendicular " vine leaf and grapes . E

cornice flower . . F

Tudor flower, cresting . G

Tudor rose H

crocket .... L

parapet o

Parker and Paley.

Parker. Bloxam. •\

*• Parker. R. Glazier.

)

,L Parker.

- Bloxam.

Parker.

148.

English Gothic Ornament — III.

Comparative Examples of Gothic Capitals

and Carved Foliage :

" Norman " capitals . . . . A, B, c " Early English " capitals and spandrel D, E, F 'jDecorated " capitals and ornament . G, H, J, K

" Perpendicular " capitals, spandrels . L. M, N, o,P I

i Parker, Pugin, and Colling.

149. English Gothic Ornament — IV.

Gable Crosses : Early English— Higham

Ferrers ,, ,, Decorated — Haslingfield

Church ,, ,, Perpendicular — Stoke

Ferry Church .

j. K. Colling.

) -Brandon.

No.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Name.

149.

English Gothic Ornament —IV. — continued, Sanctus Bell — Bloxham Church, Oxon. . Finials : Early English — Lincoln Cathe- dral ..... ,, Decorated — Winchester Cathe- dral ..... ,, Perpendicular — York Minster . Stone Pendant : Perpendicular, All Saints, Evesham ....

Bosses : Early English — Lincoln Cathe-

dral . ., ,, Westminster

Abbey .

Decorated — Southwell Minster.

, , Perpendicular — S. Mary's

Church, Bury St. Edmunds .

Early English bracket: S. Alban's Abbey

Poppy-heads : Paston Church, Norfolk .

,, Winchester Cathedral

150. Compton Wynyates, Warwickshire

151. Examples of Scottish Architecture.

Rothesay Castle, plan .... Drum Castle, plan ..... Doune Castle, plan Castle Frazer, plan Cowane's Hospital, plan Glamis Castle, plan .... ,, „ view from the south-east

George Heriot's Hospital, plan

,, „ entrance gate-

way . Grangepans, sketch from .the S.E. .

152. Examples of Irish Architecture.

Cormac's Chapel, Cashel, ground plan . ,, ,. ,, view from the

S.E.

,, ,, ,, plan of crofts.

,, ,, ,, section through

nave .

,, ,, ,, long, section .

,, ,, ,, section through

Tower, Devenish . ,, Kilree, Kilkenny

sanctuary N. porch

XXXV11

Authorities. P>om a Photo.

}]. K. Colling.

Nash.

^ MacGibbon and f Ross.

Arthur Hill. Fergusson.

}• Arthur Hill.

Fergusson.

FRENCH GOTHIC. 153. French Gothic Examples— I.

Beauvais Cathedral, section A \

plan c j- Bulges.

,, ,, plans of buttress . D, E, F )

Notre Dame, Paris, wheel window . K Gailhabaud.

XXXV111

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. Name.

154. Comparative Views of Models of Conti-

nental Cathedrals.

Amiens .......

Rouen .......

Antwerp ......

Notre Dame, Paris ....

Strasbourg ......

Beauvais . . . . . .

155. French Gothic Examples — II.

Comparative plans of cathedrals :

Rouen ......

Evreux ......

S. Oaen, Rouen ....

Chartres .....

Rheims ......

S. Chapelle, Paris ....

156. Notre Dame, Paris. View of west front .

157. French Gothic Examples— III.

Notre Dame, Paris, exterior bay .

,, ,. ,, cross section .

,, ,, ,, interior bay .

,, plan

158. Notre Dame, Paris. Interior .

159. Comparative Plans of English and

French Types of Cathedrals.

Authorities.

160. 161. 162. 163.

Salisbury Cathedral Amiens

Amiens Cathedral. Interior . Rheims Cathedral. View of west front . Coutances Cathedral. View of west front House of Jacques Cceur, Bourges .

164. Palais de Justice, Rouen ....

165. French Gothic Ornament.

Chartres, figure sculpture

., capital ..... Amiens, fleche . . . . •- .

,, grotesque figure Notre Dame, Paris, open parapet .

,, ,, stone pulpit

Mont S. Michel, foliage Notre Dame, Chalons sur-Marne .

Piers in Northern and Southern France . \ *'_ Semur, capital and crocket .

166. Antwerp Cathedral. Exterior .

A B C D E /F	1 Photos by T. Thatcher. J
I
A, C B, D E F, K G, J H	j Winkle. Pugin. JKing.
	Photo.
A B C D	Lassus and - Viollet-le- Duc.
	Photo.
, C, D, E , F, G, H	Britton. Winkle.
	Photo.
	Photo.
	Photo.
	Photo.
	Photo.
A G B E C, D R F H J> K, L, M, N, 0 P, Q	Nesfield. Burges. Nesfield. Burges. Nesfield. W. G. Davie. Nesfield.
	Photo.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XXXIX

No. Name.

167. Belgian Gothic Examples.

S. Gudule, Brussels, elevation ,, ., section.

,, ,, interior elevation

,, ,, plan

Antwerp Cathedral, section . ,. ,, plan

168. Town Hall, Bruges ....

169. Town Hall, Ghent ....

170. German Gothic Examples — I.

Cologne Cathedral, exterior . ., ,, section .

,, interior . ., ,, piers

plan

171. Ratisbon Cathedral. Exterior.

172. German Gothic Examples — II.

S. Stephen, Vienna, plan

,, section . ,, interior . S. Eliz heth, Marburg, plan

,, exterior . ,, section ,, interior .

173. S. Stephen, Vienna

174. German Gothic Ornament.

Freibourg Cathedral, canopy capitals S. Paul, Worms, capitals Cologne, parapet ....

,, corbel capital .

,, gargoyles

,, doorway Gelnhausen, doorway . Bruges, miserere .... Marburg, tomb ....

175. Milan Cathedral. Exterior

176. Italian Gothic Examples — I.

Milan Cathedral, plan .

,, long, section

,, transverse section

S. Maria-dei-Fiori, Florence, plan ,, long, section .

177. Milan Cathedral. Interior

178. The Doge's Palace, Venice .

179. Italian Gothic Examples— II.

Palazzo della Ca d'Oro, elevation . Doge's Palace, Venice, fa?ade Palazzo Pisani, Venice, fa9ade Siena Cathedral, plan .

A B C

D, E. G, H F

A, C

B

I)

J K, L

F

E G, H

M

Authorities.

- King.

Photo. Photo.

Boisseree.

Photo.

Gailhabaud.

\ King. Photo.

Norman Shaw. M oiler.

)

'- Boisseree.

J

Moller.

Norman Shaw. Moller.

Photo.

Gailhabaud and others.

Photo. Photo.

Cicognara.

xl

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. Name.

180. Ca d'Oro Palace, Venice

181. Florence Cathedral. Exterior .

182. Siena Cathedral. Exterior

183. Monreale Cathedral. The cloisters .

184. Italian Gothic Ornament.

Baptistery at Pisa, detail of capital from

pulpit ,, ,, plan of pulpit .

,, pulpit

,, Florence, candelabra

Campo Snnto, Pisa, window . Pisa Cathedral, portion of pulpit .

,, ,, lion and base of column

Naples, capital ..... Ducal Palace, Venice, capital Venice, angle window .... Palazzo Scaligeri, Verona, campanile .

185. Burgos Cathedral. Exterior .

1 86. Burgos Cathedral. Interior

187. Spanish Gothic Examples.

S. Maria del Mar, Barcelona, plan Barcelona Cathedral, plan Gerona ,, .,

Toledo ,, ,,

Lerida ,,. ,,

1 88. S. Juan de los Reyes, Toledo

189. S. Gregorio, Valladolid ....

190. Spanish Gothic Ornament.

Burgos Cathedral, ornament from tomb . ,, Gonzalo ,, . balcony

sculptured pier . plan .... window of dome elbows of sedilia Miraflores, Infante's tomb .

,, base of Infante's tomb .

,, pier of ,. ,,

Las Huelgas, capitals .... S. Gil, canopy .....

A B c

H L J K D G

M, N E F

Authorities. Photo. Photo. Photo. Photo.

[ Rohault de I Fleury.

Norman Shaw..

") Rohault de ) Fleury.

Cicognara.

Photo. Photo.

L Street.

Photo. Photo.

-Waring,

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE,

191. Florentine Renaissance Examples — I.

Palazzo Strozzi, main cornice . . A ,, ,, section and elevation of

court ; . . c

,, ., plan E

,, ,, keystone F

\- Raschdorff.

(Grandjean et ( Famin. Raschdorff.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Xli

No. Name.

191. Florentine Renaissance Examples— I. —continued.

Palazzo Riccardi, main cornice . . B

., ,, elevation . . . D

,, ,, plan .... G

192. Palazzo Riccardi, Florence

193. Florentine Renaissance Examples — II.

Pazzi Chapel, plan

,, ,, elevation .

,, ,, section

S. Lorenzo, plan .... S. Andrea, Mantua, plan ., ,, ,, long, section.

„ porch . S. Spirito, capital ,, ,, plan .... ,, ,, long, section

194. Florentine Renaissance Ornament.

Duomo of Fiesole, console from tomb Palazzo Vecchio. capital Medici Chapel, Santa Croce, corbel Palazzo Strozzi, window

,, Gondi, ,, .

,, Pandolfini, window .

,, ,, pilaster .

Mercato Nuovo, niche . Banner bracket

Piazzo Annunziata, bronze fountain Palazzo Guadagni, lamp bracket .

195. Palazzo Giraud, Rome . . .

196. Roman Renaissance Examples — I.

Cancellaria Palace, elevation . ,, ,, plan

Massimi Palace, elevation ,, ;, plan

197. Farnese Palace, Rome

198. Roman Renaissance Examples— II.

Farnese Palace, Rome —

Details of main cornice .

Front fa?ade .... Elevation of cortile

Plan

Section and plan through loggia Upper plan ....

A, B

C

D

E

F G, H

J

Authorities.

/ Grandjean et ( Famin. / Waring and ( Macquoid. J Grandjean et ( Famin.

Photo.

I Grandjean et j Famin.

D'Agincourt.

D'Agincoiirt.

A B	f Waring and
C	f Macquoid.
E	) Grandjean et
F	/ Famin.
-- J
H	Raschdorff.
K
	( Waring and
L	( Macquoid.
M	Raschdorff.

Photo.

Letarouilly.

(T. F. Suys et

L. P. Haude- l bourt. Photo.

-Letarouilly.

xlii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No.	Name.	Authorities.
199.	Roman Renaissance Examples — III.
	Tempietto of S. Pietro in Montorio,
	Rome —	•
	Elevation .....	A
	Section ......	B
	Plan	C	-Letarouilly.
	S. Andrea, Rome, plan ....	D
	,, ,, section	E
	,, ,, elevation .	/ F
	S. Maria della Consolazione, Todi, plan . /	G .
	,, ,, elevation	H	D'Agincourt
	,, ,, section .	J
	11 Jesu, Rome, plan ....	K
	. , ,, elevation	L	Gailhabaud.
	,, ,, section ....	M
2OO.	The Capitol, Rome	Photo.
201.	Roman Renaissance Examples — IV.
	The Capitol, Rome, plan	A \
	,, ,, elevation	B
	Palace of Caprarola, plan	C [• Durand.
	,, ,, elevation	D 1
	,, ,, section .	E
2O2.	S. Peter, Rome	Photo.
203.	Roman Renaissance Examples — V.
	S. Peter, Rome —
	Plan of peristyle ....	A
	,, ,, by Bramante .	B
	Suggested dome by Sangallo .	c hDurand.
	,, ,, by Bramante	D
	Elevation .....	E J
	Section of dome ....	F
	Cross section .....	G Durand.
	Sketch of peristyle ....	H
	Suggested plan by Raphael General plan .....	J K	Durand.
	Half plan by Peruzzi	L
	,, by Ant. Sangallo	M Fergusson.
204.	S. Peter, Rome. Interior.	Photo.
205.	S. Peter, Rome. Exterior	Photo.
206.	Roman Renaissance Ornament.
	Farnese Palace, window	A
	5) 55 ...	B
	11 ••> ' ...	G
	5>	H
	Cancellaria Palace, window and balcony.	D
	,, ,, ,, section plan . - .	E F	-Letarouilly.
	Massimi Palace, doorhead	J> K
	S. M. sopra Minerva, doorway	L
	S. Agostino, panels .... S. M. del Popolo, angle of tomb .	N 0
	., ,, tomb	P J

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

xliii

No. Name.

207. Palazzo Vendramini, Venice .

208. Venetian Renaissance Examples — I.

Palazzo Grimani, plinth

. ,, cornice, capitals .

, , elevation of half fa9ade

plan . . . Palazzo Vendramini, half fa?ade

,, cornices and capital

209. The Pesaro Palace, Venice

210. Venetian Renaissance Examples — II.

S. Mark's Library, fa?ade

,, ,, cornices .

Doge's Palace, cornices ....

213.

214.

215.

,, pers ....

Venetian Renaissance Examples — III.

S. Maria dei Miracoli, fa?ade ,, ,, section

,, ,, long, section

plan

S. Giorgio dei Greci, fa9ade

,, ,, long- section

., ,, plan .

,, ,, doorhead

,, ,, cornice

S. Giorgio Maggiore, facade 5j ,, plan .

,, ,, section

S. Maria della Salute, Venice

Comparative Plans of Various

Cathedrals.

S. Paul, London ..... S. Peter, Rome ..... Pantheon, Paris ..... Cologne Cathedral . . S, Maria della Salute ....

Venetian Renaissance Ornament.

S. Mark, pedestal of flagstaff Equestrian statue of Colleoni, elevation

Half plan, ditto .

Entablature and capital to ditto .

Scuola di S. Marco, doorway .. . .

,, ,, panel .

Window and balustrade Palazzo Zorzi, capital .... S. M. dei Miracoli, capital and pilaster .

,, Greci, campanile . The Basilica at Vicenza ....

		Authorities.
		Photo.
A,	B, C •>
»,	E, F
	G J	-Cicognara.
	H
K	, L
		Photo.
A ) Waring and B, c j" Macquoid.
D, E )
F |- Cicognara.
G,	", J )
	A
	B
	C
	U
	E
	F G	-Cicognara
	H
	J
	K
	M
		Photo.
	A	J. Clayton.
	B C J	Durand.
	D	Boisseree.
	E	Cicognara.
	A I
	B
	E	Cicognara.
	F
J Waring and ( Macquoid.
	G	Photo.
	D	Cicognara.
	H	- Photo.
	J
	K	Waring and Macquoid.
		Photo.

xliv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. Name.

216. Renaissance Examples by Palladio.

The Basilica at Vicenza, elevation . . A

,, ,, section . . B

plan C

Villa Capra, Vicenza, elevation . . D

,, ,, section . . E

,, ,, plan F

Palazzo del Capitanio, elevation . G

Palazzo Porto Barbarano, ,, . . / H

217. Renaissance Examples in Genoa and '

Verona.

Palazzo Pompeii, Verona, fa9ade . . A

,, Municipio, Genoa, fa9ade . . B

,, ,, section . . . c

,, ,, long, section . . D

,, ,, plans . . E, F

218. Renaissance Ornament in Genoa and

Verona. Palazzo Gambaro, angle of cornice to

doorway . . A

,, ,, plan of cornice . B

,, ,, key sketch . . D

,. Carega, angle cornice . . c

, , , , key sketch . . E

Old Convent, Genoa, lavabo . . F

Villa Cambiaso, coffered ceiling . . G

,, ,, pilaster . . . K, L

Typical cap ...... H

Doorway ...... J

Sanmicheli's house, Verona, doorway . M

219. Chateau de Blois, Escalier Francois

Premier . . . .

220. French Renaissance Examples — I.

Chateau de Bury, plan .... A

,, ,, elevation B

,, Chambord, plan . . . C

,, ,, elevation . . D

The Louvre, Paris, fa9ade E

,, ,, block plan . . F

221. Chateau De Chambord ....

222. S. Eustache, Paris

223. French Renaissance, Examples— II.

Les Invalides, Paris, section through

dome . . A

,, ,, plan B

The Pantheon, Paris, section through

dome . . C

,, ,, plan D

Chateau de Maisons, elevation . . E

,, ,, plan F

Luxembourg Palace, Paris, part elevation G

,, ,, ,, plan . . H

Authorities

Palladio.

f Waring and

} Macquoid.

Reinhardt.

\ Reinhardt.

- Reinhardt.

J. Kinross. - Reinhardt.

J. Kinross. ) Waring and j" Macquoid.

Photo.

Durand.

Photo. Photo.

•Gailhabaud.

\ Durand.

Sauvageot. f Sauvageot and ( Durand.

Durand.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

xlv

224.

225.

226.

227. 228. 229.

231,

232.

233- 234-

Name.

The Pantheon, Paris .... French Renaissance Ornament — I.

Palace at Fontainebleau, capital ,, ,, panel

Chateau de Chamborcl, capital ,, ,, dormer

,, Chenonceaux, doorway

French Renaissance Ornament — II.

Keystone

Balcony (Louis XV.) .

Versailles, lead fountain

Lycee Napoleon, dormer window .

Paris, console .....

Versailles, style of decoration

Doorway . .

Paris, fountain (Louis XV.) . ,, door and window .

Palais Royal, cornice and balustrade

Heidelberg Castle

The Rathhaus, Cologne .... German Renaissance Examples.

Lemgo Town Hall, elevation .

Solothurn Town Hall, elevation

Ober-Ehnheim, wellhead

Weimar, arcade .....

Nuremberg, dormer window . . . The Pellerhaus, Nuremberg . German Renaissance Ornament.

Heidelberg Castle, windows and niche . ,. ,, statue . .

Freiburg, Switzerland, capital

Heilbron, gable .....

Freiburg, capital .....

Erfurt, window .....

Heilbron, cartouche ....

Munich, doorway ..... Belgian and Dutch Renaissance Examples.

Haarlem, pinnacles ....

Antwerp, gable .....

Utrecht, pilasters .....

Leyden Town Hall, elevation The Town Hall, Antwerp Belgian and Dutch Renaissance Ornament.

Dordrecht, bench-ends ....

Antwerp, doorway ....

Gable end

Enghien, capital .....

Brussels, ornament

Musee Plantin, Antwerp, door ,, ,, ,, staircase .

Zalt Bommel, figures ....

L'Eglise des Capucins, ornament .

Authorities. Photo.

A, B C. E D,F

K, L, M H, J

A

B, C, D

E

F

G, H

L

J, K

N, O, P

Q, R, S

T, U

J Pfnor. 'rBerty.

} Cesar Daly.

Photo. Photo.

Lambert and c' D Stahl.

J

E F, G

A, C B D E F G H J

A, B, C, E

Photo.

Lambert and Stahl.

Photo.

A, B C D E F G H J K

VEwerbeck.

xlvi

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. Name.

235. Town Hall, Seville

236. Spanish Renaissance Examples.

Toledo; the Alcazar, portion of facade . Avila, the Casa Polentina courtyard

237. Burgos. Courtyard of the House of

Miranda .....

238. Comparative Plans of Various Buildings.

The King's House, Greenwich . . ( The Rotunda, Vicenza .... The Escurial, Spain .... Villa of Pope Julius, Rome . Blenheim Palace .....

239. Spanish Renaissance Ornament.

Siguenza Cathedral, door from cloisters Cuenza Cathedral, iron screen Alcala De Henares, window . Avila, iron pulpit ....

240. Map of Western Europe at the Time of

Elizabeth.

241. Hatfield House. The Hall .

242. Knole, Kent. Staircase

243. Haddon Hall. Long Gallery .

244. English Renaissance Examples — I.

Holland House, elevation

,, ., ground floor plans

Stockton House, side of drawing-room .

Blickling Hall, Norfolk, the great

staircase .....

245. English Renaissance Examples — II.

Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire, south elevation

i» 1 « ». plan .

Hardwicke Hall, elevation it plan .

246. Kirby Hall, Northants .

247. Little Moreton Hall, Cheshire

248. The Tower of the old Schools, Oxford .

249. Hatfield House , . ,

A B C

D, E F

A

B, C D E

A

B, C D

E

Authorities Photo.

} A. N. Prentice. Photo.

Campbell. Palladio. Thompson. Letarouilly. Kc rr.

-A. N. Prentice.

Nash. Nash.

Nash.

Richardson. f Princess of ( Lichenstein.

[• Henry Shaw.

j

\ P. F. Robinson.

Photo. Photo. Photo. Photo.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

xlvii

No.

Name.

250. English Renaissance Ornament— I.

Bramshill House, Hants, balustrade . A

., ., ,, oriel . . E

,, ,, ., arcade . . G

,. ,, ,, plaster ceiling M

Duke's House, Bradford, balustrade . B

Hatfield House, newel c

Blickling Hall, Norfolk, entrance . . D

,, ,, ,. chimney piece K

All Hallow's (Barking) Church, wall

tablet F

House at Yarmouth, frieze . . . H

Aston Hall, frieze j Claverton, Somersetshire, rain water

head ...... L

251. English Renaissance Ornament — II.

Doorway in Broughton Castle . . A

Bay window, Hinchingbrooke Hall . B

Chapel screen, Charterhouse, London . c

Bookcase, Pembroke College, Cambridge D Tomb of Lord Burghley, S. Martin,

Stamford ...... E

Throne and stalls, Convocation Room,

Oxford ...... F

Pulpit, North Cray Church, Kent . . G Lead cistern, Victoria and Albert

Museum ...... H

Tablet, Peterhouse College Chapel, Cambs. j

252. English Renaissance Examples — III.

York Water-Gate, London, elevation . A

,, ,, ,, plan . . B

Banqueting House, Whitehall, elevation c

„ ,, ,, plan . D

Whitehall Palace, ground plan . . E

253. English Renaissance Examples — IV.

S. Paul, London, Wren's original plan A ,, ,, section through

dome

,, ,, plan . . . c

,, ,, sketch of peristyle . D

,, ,, transverse section . E

„ , , western fa$ade . F

254. S. Paul, London

255. English Renaissance Examples — V.

S. Mary Le Bow, section ... A

,, ,, elevation . . . B

,, ,, plans . . . 1-6

S. Bride, elevation c

,, section D

,, plans . . . . 7-12

Authorities.

I Henry Shaw..

j Richardson.

} Henry Shaw~

Richardson.

}J.A. Gotch.

H. Tanner, junr..

J. A. Gotch.

H. '.Tanner, junr.. C. J.Richardson.

H. I. Triggs. H. Tanner, junr..

Campbell.

Kent.

Campbell.

Kent.

Clayton and Gailhabaud

Photo.

J-Clayton..

xlviii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. Name.

256. English Renaissance Examples — VI.

S. Stephen, Walbrook, details ,, ,, section

,, ,, plan

257. English Renaissance Examples — VII.

S. James, Piccadilly, London —

' Plan

Elevation ..... Cross section ..... Long, section ....

S. Bride, London, plan

,, ,, elevation

,, ,, cross section

,, ,, long, section .

258. English Renaissance Examples— VIII.

Castle Howard, elevation

,, section

,, central portion

Kedlestone Hall, elevation .

,, section

,, plan

259. Somerset House, London

260. English Renaissance Ornament — III.

Doorway ......

Horse Guards, London, typical window Aston, wall tablet ....

Wilton, archway ....

S. Martin's Church, London, window Gate piers . . . . - . Chimney piece ..... Westminster, monument

261. English Renaissance Examples — IX.

Examples by Sir William Chambers. Pedimented gateway ....

Doorway ......

A Venetian window ....

Doorway or portion of Ionic colonnade without pedestals ....

Casino at Marino, near Dublin Doorway or portion of Corinthian colon- nade with pedestals ....

Superimposed orders, without pedestals . ,, ,, ,, section

,, ., with arcades and

pedestals

,, ,, with Venetian

arcades and pedestals

thorities.

A, C

B j- Clayton.

D

j-Clayton.

I Campbell.

I Woolfe and j Gandon.

Photo.

A, C	Kent.
	( Sir William
B	( Chambers.
D	James Gibbs.
E	(Sir W.Cham -
	"| bers.
F	James Gibbs.
G	Kent.
H, K J	-James Gibbs.

I Chambers.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

xlix

No. Name.

262. Comparative diagrams of the propor-

tions of the Orders after Sir W. Chambers.

Greek Doric .

Tuscan

Roman Doric . . . . .

Ionic

Corinthian

Composite

263. The Houses of Parliament, London

Authorities.

Chambers.

Photo.

ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES.

264. Garrick (formerly Schiller) Theatre, Chicago.

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.

265. Map of India.

266. Indian Examples and Ornament.

Sanchi, gateway

Indian roof construction Kanaruc in Orissa, pagoda

Sanchi, rail

Seringham, compound pillar . Bindrabund, Agra, plan

,, ,, pillar

Greek Temple, Baillur, plan . Vellore, compound pillar Stone ornaments .....

267. Karli. Interior of rock-cut cave

268. Ajunta. Fa$ade of rock-cut cave

269. Elephanta. Interior view of rock-cut cave

270. Mount Abu. Interior of Dilwana Temple .

271. Palitana. The great Chawmukh Temple .

272. Gwalior. The great Sas Bahu Temple

273. Umber. The Hindu Temple of Tagat-

Garwan . ......

274. Hullabid. The East door of the double

Temple .......

275. Ellora. The "rath" (Temple of Kailos) .

276. Tanjore. The Great Temple from the N.E.

277. Mandura. The West Gateway and Gopura

278. Tarputry. Entrance to the old Temple

279. 280.

A
B, C D, E	j- Fergusson.
F	J
G	Le Bon.
H J	} Cole.
K Li	I Fergusson.
M, N, 0, P	Owen Jones.
	Photo.
	Photo.
	Photo.
	Photo.
	Photo.
	Photo.

Photo.

Photo. Photo. Photo. Photo. Photo.

CHINESE AND JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE.

The Emperor's Palace. Pekin . . Photo.

Shanghai. A typical Chinese pagoda . Photo.

F.A. d

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

No.	Name.		Authorities.
28l.	Chinese and Japanese Examples.
	Canton merchant's house	A, B, C	Chambers.
			(R.I.B.A.
	Pekin, Altar of Agriculture .		•j papers, 1 866
			( -67.
	Pekin, pavilion, summer palace	F
	Nankin, porcelain tower	E	Rosengarten.
	Tokyo, Temple of Miyo-Jin-Kanda	G
	Japanese middle-class house . Tea-house, Japan . . . . . /	,H,J K	-J. Conder.
	Japan, public baths . . . ~ J	L, M J
282.	A Pailoo -	<.	Photo.
283.	Chinese and Japanese Ornament.
	Columned brackets .... Detail of eaves .....	A, B C	Chambers.
	Roof construction ....	D
	Fret ornaments .....	E, F
	Garden temple ..... Great Temple, Canton ....	G H • j	Chambers.
	Triumphal arch, Canton	J	Chambers.
	Gate, Temple of Confucius .	K	Rosengarten.
	Sketch of Tenno-ji Pagoda .	L	From a photo.
	Temple of Miyo-jin, altar shrine .	M	J. Conder.
	Japanese lamp .....	N
	,, compound bracket .	0
	,, font shed ....	P, Q
	,, gable ends ....	R, S	•J. Conder.
SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE.
284.	Map of the Saracen Empire.
285.	Mosque of Kait Bey, Cairo. Exterior .		Photo.
286.	Saracenic Examples in Spain and Egypt.
	Mosque of Ibn Tooloon, plan ,, ,, ,, courtyard	A B	Gailhabaud.
	Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo, plan .	C
	,, ,, ,, ,, section	D	Fergusson.
	The Alhambra, Granada, plan	E
	,, ,, elevation	F	Durand.
287.	The Mosque of Kait Bey, Cairo. Interior		Photo.
288.	Mosque, Cordova. Interior		Photo.
289.	The Giralda, Seville. Exterior		Photo.
290.	The Alhambra, Granada. Capital in
	courtyard ......		Photo.
291.	Saracenic Ornament in Spain and Egypt.
	The Alhambra, capital ....	A, C
	,, blind window		•Owen Jones.
	,, wall ornament	D
	Mosque of Sultan Hassan, column	E
	Cairo, portal arch. ....	F

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

li

No.	Name.		Authorities.
291.	Saracenic Ornament in Spain and
	E gy pt — continued.
	Arch voussoirs .....	G, H	"|
	Capital, showing stalactite ornament	J	I
	Typical dome ..... Various forms of arches	K L, M, N	} Owen Jones.
	Cresting to walls ,	0, P	J
292.	The Mosque of Suleiman I. .		Photo.
293-	Fountain near S. Sophia, Constanti-
	nople ......		Photo.
294.	Saracenic Examples in India.
	The Taj-Mehal, Agra, plan .	A	Fergusson
	,, ,, general view ,, ,, section	B C	j Edmund Smith.
	Mosque, Futtehpore-Sikri, plan .	D	Cole.
	,, ,. ,, view .	E
	Tomb of Selim Chistee, section ,, „ plan	F G	| Cole.
	The Jumma Musjid, Bijapur, plan ,, ,, ,, section	H J	- Cunningham.
295-	Mosque of Futtehpore-Sikri .		Photo.
296.	Futtehpore-Sikri. Marble tomb of Selim
	Chistee		Photo.
297.	The Taj-Mehal, Agra . . . .		Photo.
298.	Saracenic Ornament in India.
	Futtehpore-Sikri, window ,, ,, kiosk	A B	r Edmund Smith.
	Dewan Khas, Futtehpore-Sikri, plan . ,, ,, ,, elevation	H J	j Cole.
	Selim Chistee's Tomb ....	C	Edmund Smith.
	Futtehpore-Sikri, bracketed column	D	Le Bon.
	Gopal Bhawan Palace at Deeg, Agra,
	porch ......	E	H. H. Cole.
	Selim Chistee's Tomb, view of angle . Minaret from Mosque, Agra .	F G	I Le Bon.
	Futtehpore-Sikri, red sandstone bracket » ,, arch, springing .	K L	I Edmund Smith.
299.	Comparative forms of Arches.

DIAGRAM TABLE

OF THE

SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION FOR EACH STYLE.

1. Influences.

i. GEOGRAPHICAL.

n. GEOLOGICAL. in. CLIMATE. iv. RELIGION.

v. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL. vi. HISTORICAL.

2. Architectural Character.

3. Examples.

4. Comparative Table.

A. Plan, or general distribution of the building.

B. Walls, their construction and treatment. - c. Roofs, their treatment and development.

D. Openings, their character and shape.

E. Columns, their position, structure, and

decoration.

F. Mouldings, their form and decoration.

G. Ornament, as applied in general to any

building.

5. Reference Books.

A

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE

ON THE

COMPARATIVE METHOD.

PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE.

" Study mere shelter, now for him, and him ; Nay, even the worst — just house them ! Any cave Suffices ; throw out earth ! A loop hole ? Brave !

. . . But here's our son excels At hurdle weaving any Scythian ; fells Oak and devises rafters ; dreams and shapes His dream into a door post, just escapes The mystery of hinges. . . .

The goodly growth

Of brick and stone ! Our building-pelt was rough, But that descendants' garb suits well enough A portico-contriver.

***** The work marched : step by step— a workman fit Took each, nor too fit — to one task, one time — No leaping o'er the petty to the prime, "When just the substituting osier lithe For brittle bulrush, sound wood for soft withe, To further loam-and-rough-cast work a stage, Exacts an architect, exacts an age." — BROWNING.

THE origins of architecture, although lost in the mists of antiquity, must have been connected intimately with the endeavours of man to provide for his physical wants. It has been truly said that protection from the inclemency of the seasons was the mother of architecture. According to Vitrtivius, man in his primitive savage state began to imitate the nests of birds and the lairs of beasts, commencing with arbours of twigs covered with mud, then huts formed of branches of trees and covered with turf (No. 2 c). Other writers indicate three types of primitive dwellings — the caves (No. 2 H) or rocks or those occupied in hunting or fishing,

F.A. B

BRANCHES OF TREE5 COVERED WITH TURF-

THE

HUT (g) MOMOLITO,' (ft SHIELMGS JuRA,

^^LQCMARIAKER. 5WTTAHY. ^^ ^

JuRA,5coTLm

.r.SV^. __ ,,..'

)) BEEHIVE HUTS LIWIS,SCOTU\ND,

.

BEEHIVE HUT, IRELAND.

ASSTORED w W/WIRE

THE DlAMLTER OF LARGE 5TONE CIRCLE IS 106 F

PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE. 3

the hut (No. 2 A, D, E) for the agriculturist, and the tent (No. 2 j) for those such as shepherds leading a pastoral or nomadic life.

Structures of the prehistoric period, although interesting for archaeological reasons, have little or no architectural value, and will only be lightly touched upon.

The remains may be classified under : —

i. Monoliths, or single upright stones, also known as menhirs, a well-known example 63 feet high, 14 feet in diameter, and weighing 260 tons, being at Carnac, Brittany. Another example is at Locmariaker, also in Brittany (No. 2 B).

ii. Dolmens (Daul, a table, and maen, a stone), consisting of one large flat stone supported by upright stones. Examples are to be found near Maidstone and other places in England, also in Ireland, Northern France, the Channel Islands, Italy (No. 2 F) and India.

iii. Cromlechs, or circles of stone, as at Stonehenge (No. 2 G), Avebury (Wilts), and elsewhere, consisting of a series of upright stones arranged in a circle and supporting horizontal slabs.

iv. Tumuli, or burial mounds, were probably prototypes of the Pyramids of Egypt (No. 4) and the beehive huts found in Wales, Cornwall, Ireland (No. 2 D, E) and elsewhere. That at New Grange (Ireland) resembles somewhat the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae (No. 15).

v. Lake Dwellings, as discovered in the lakes of Switzer- land, Italy and Ireland consisted of wooden huts supported on piles, and were so placed for protection against hostile attacks of all kinds.

These foregoing primitive or prehistoric remains have little constructive sequence, and are merely mentioned here to show from what simple beginnings the noble art of architecture was evolved, although unfortunately the stages of the evolution cannot be traced, owing to the fact that the oldest existing monuments of any pretension, as in Egypt, belong to a high state of civilization.

REFERENCE BOOKS.

Gamier (C.) and Ammann (A.). — " L' Habitation Humaine — Pre- historique et Historique." 4to. Paris. 1892.

Lineham (R. S.). — " The Street of Human Habitations : An Account of Man's Dwelling-places, Customs, etc., in Prehistoric Times, and in Ancient Egypt, Assyria, Persia, India, Japan, etc." 8vo., cloth. 1894.

Viollet-le-Duc (E. E.).— "The Habitations of Man in all Ages." Translated from the French by B. Bucknall. 8vo. 1876.

Waring (J. B.). — " Stone Monuments, Tumuli, and Ornament of Remote Ages, with Remarks on the Early Architecture of Ireland and Scotland." Folio. 1870.

B 2

PART I. /

v

THE HISTORICAL STYLES.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

" Deal worthily \vith the History of Architecture and it is worthy to take its place with the History of Law and of Language." — FREEMAN.

IN introducing this Comparative treatment of Historical Archi- tecture, a general outline sketch is given of the course which the art has taken up to the present time in Europe, and also in those countries, such as Egypt and Assyria, which have influenced that development.

Architecture may be said to include every building or structure raised by human hands, and is here denned as construction with an artistic motive : the more the latter is developed, the greater being the value of the result.

The first habitations of man were undoubtedly those that nature afforded, such as caves (No. 2 H) or grottoes, which demanded little labour on his part to convert into shelters against the fury of the elements, and attacks from his fellows or wild animals.

As soon as man rose above the state of rude nature, he naturally began to build more commodious habitations for him- self, and some form of temple for his god. Such early forms are given under the heading of Prehistoric Architecture.

To pass, however, at once into Historic times, there prevailed in Egypt a system of architecture which consisted of a massive construction of walls and columns, in which the latter — closely spaced, short, and massive — carried lintels, which in their turn supported the flat beamed roof. In Babylonia, the develop- ment of brick construction with the consequent evolution of the arch and vault was due to the absence of more permanent building materials. The influence of Egyptian and Assyrian architecture on that of Greece is apparent in many directions.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORICAL STYLES. 5

Grecian architecture is considered by many to have had its origin in the wooden hut or cabin formed of posts set in the earth, and covered with transverse beams and rafters, and this was the type which was developed in the early Mycenaean period into the pyodomus of the Greek house. This timber archi- tecture, copied in marble or stone, was naturally at first very simple and rude ; the influence of the material, however, was soon felt, when the permanence and value of stone aided in the growth of the art. It should be noted, however, that many writers hold that Greek architecture is developed from an early stone type. As civilization and technical skill, moreover, advanced, the qualities of refinement in detail and proportion were perceived, and the different orders of architecture — Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (No. 38) — came into existence. By the word " order " is meant certain methods of proportioning and decorating a column, and the part it supports, i.e., the entablature. The above "orders" are characteristic of Greek architecture, and the beauty and grace with which they were treated, and the artistic and mathematical skill with which they were constructed, illustrate the keen artistic temperament of the Greeks.

Greece eventually succumbed to the conquering Romans who, however, adopted their architecture, and in many cases employed Greek artists in the erection of their buildings. While borrowing this trabeated architecture, they added the use of the arch, which they had probably already learnt to construct from the Etruscans, the ancient inhabitants of Central Italy.

The column and arch were used conjointly by the Romans for some time, good examples being the Colosseum at Rome (Nos. 62 and 63), and the Triumphal Arches (Nos. 65 and 66). This dualism is a very important fact to remember, because, as will be seen, it eventually ended in the exclusion of the beam altogether, and in the employment of the arch alone, throughout the entire constructive system of the building. In the numerous buildings which the Romans erected, it will be noticed that the column has. in the generality of cases, become merely a decorative feature, the actual work of support being performed by the piers of the wall behind, connected together by semicircular arches.

As time went on, however, such practical people as the Romans could not but discard a feature which was no longer utilitarian, so the column as a decorative feature disappeared, and the arcuated system it had masked was exposed.

Columns were, however, used constructively, as in many of the great basilicas, in which the semicircular arches spring directly from their capitals. As the Romans conquered the whole of the then known world, that is to say, most of what is now known as Europe (No. 45), so this feature of the semicircular arch was introduced in every part, by its use in the settlements

6 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

which they founded. Roman architecture was prevalent in Europe in a more or less debased form up to the tenth century of our era, and is the basis on which European architecture is founded. The gradual breaking up of the Roman Empire, the formation of separate European states, and other causes which we shall enumerate separately, led to many variations of this semicircular arched style, both in construction and decoration.

The transition commenced. in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries, when the later Romanesque, so called as being derived from the Roman style, was in vogue. Constructive necessity, aided largely by inventive genius, led, in the latter part of the twelfth century, to the introduction of the pointed arch.

The pointed arch is the keynote of what is known as the Gothic or pointed style, which prevailed throughout Europe during the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, during which period were erected those magnificent cathedrals and churches, which form the most emphatic record of the religious feeling and character of the Middle Ages.

The past styles of European architecture may be broadly summarized as being divided into two great types, viz. : (i) Classic, or the architecture of the beam, ancf (2) Gothic, or the architecture of the arch. Each of these types depends on an important con- structive principle, and any style may be placed under one or other of these types.

The early styles, including the Greek, belong to the former. Roman architecture is a composite transition style, whose goal, if unchecked, would seem to have been the combination of the round arch and dome that are seen in the great examples of the Byzantine style. It was left to the Gothic style to formulate a complete system of arcuated construction, the working out of which was marvellously alike in all countries. It was a style, moreover, in which a decorative system was closely welded to the constructive, both uniting to reflect a more intense expression of its age than had, perhaps, hitherto been achieved in previous architecture.

The revival of the arts and letters in the fifteenth century was a fresh factor in the history of architecture. The condition of Europe at that period was one of ripeness for a great change, for the Gothic system, whether in architecture or in civilization regarded as a whole, may fairly be said to have culminated. Its latest works were tinged by the coming change, or showed signs of becoming stereotyped by the mechanical repetition of architectural features.

The new force was the belief that the old Romans had been wiser and more experienced than the medievalists, and the result was the earnest study of every Roman fragment, whether of art or literature, that had been preserved or could be recovered.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORICAL STYLES. 7

For some three centuries this belief held good, till by the opening up of Greece to travel and study towards the end of the eighteenth century, the tradition was modified by the admission of Grecian remains to an equal or supreme place, beside or even above those of Rome.

This second phase had not, however, an equal success for divers reasons ; a reaction was at' hand in favour of mediaeval ideals, whether in the church, art, or the State.

A conscious effort was then made — the most earnestly in England — to modify the current that had been flowing since the year 1500, and some of the results of this attempt may be traced by the student wise enough to follow up the clues indicated in the concluding pages of the English Renaissance style. In acquaint- ing himself with the buildings therein mentioned, he may feel that few of the diverse elements of our complex civilization, at the beginning of the twentieth century, have failed to find some architectural expression.

COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

GENERAL REFERENCE BOOKS.

N.B. — Lists of Reference Books for special periods and styles are given throughout the book.

"Architectural Association Sketch Book." Folio. 1867-1904.

Bosc (E.). — " Dictionnaire raisonne d'Archi lecture." 4 vols., 4to. Paris, 1877-1880.

Brault (E.). — " Les Architects par leurs ceuvres."7 3 vols. Paris, 1892- 1893.

Choisy (A.).— " Histoire de 1'Architecture." 2 vols, 8vo. Paris, 1899.

Cummings (C. A.). — "A History of Architecture in Italy from the Time of Constantine to the Dawn of the Renaissance." 2 vols., 8vo. 1901.

D'Agincourt (S.).- — -"History of Art by its Monuments." Translated from the Italian by Owen Jones. Folio. 1847.

Dehio (G.) and Bezold (G. v.).— "Die Kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes." Folio. Stuttgart, 1884, etc.

" Dictionary of Architecture, issued by the Architectural Publication Society." With Detached Essays and Illustrations. 6 vols., folio. 1848-1892.

Durand (J. N. L.).— " Parallele des Edifices de tout genre." Paris, 1800.

Eulart (C.). — " Manuel d'Archeologie Fran9aise depuis les temps Merovingiens jusqu'a la Renaissance." i. Architecture Religieux. 2. Architecture Civile. 2 vols., Svo. Paris, 1902.

Fergusson (J.). — " History of Architecture in all Countries." 5 vols., Svo. 1893, etc.

Fletcher (B. F.).— " The Influence of Material on Architecture." Imperial Svo. 1897.

Gailhabaud (J.).— L' Architecture du V. au XVII. siecle." 5 vols., folio and 410. Paris, 1869-1872.

Gailhabaud (J.). — "Monuments Anciens et Modernes." 410. Paris. 1850.

Gwilt (J.). — "Encyclopaedia of Architecture." Svo. 1900.

" Handbuch der Architektur." Comprising a number of volumes upon the History and Practice of Architecture. Darmstadt.

Milizia (F.).— " Lives of Celebrated Architects." 2 vols., Svo. 1826.

Parker (J.). — " Glossary of Terms used in Architecture." 3 vols. 1850.

Perrot (G.) and Chipiez (C.).— " History of Ancient Art." 12 vols., Svo. 1883-1894.

Planat. — " Encyclopedic d'Architecture et de la Construction." 1 1 vols.

" Royal Institute of British Architects' Transactions.'3 1853 ct scq.

Sturgis. — "A Dictionary of Architecture and Building." 3 vols., 4to. New York, 1901.

Vasari (G.).— " Lives of the most Eminent Painters, Sculptors and Architects." Edited by Blashfield. 4 vols., Svo. 1897.

Viollet-le-Duc (E. C.). — " Dictionnaire de 1'Architecture." 10 vols., Svo. Paris, 1859.

Viollet-le-Duc. — " Entretiens sur 1'Architecture." 3 vols. Paris, 1863. There is an English translation by B. Bucknall, entitled " Lectures on Architecture." 2 vols., Svo. 1877-1881.

Vitruvius (Marcus Pollio). — "The Architecture of." Translated by W- Newton. Folio, 1791. An edition by J. Gwilt. 410. i3?6.

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.

" Those works where man has rivalled nature most, Those Pyramids, that fear no more decay Than waves inflict upon the rockiest coast, Or winds on mountain steeps, and like endurance boast."

i. INFLUENCES.

i. Geographical. — -The civilization of every country has been, as will be shown, largely determined by its geographical conditions, for the characteristic features of the land in which any race dwells shape their mode of life and thus influence their intellectual culture.

On referring to the map (No. 3) it will be seen that Egypt consists of a sandy desert with a strip of fertile country on the banks of the Nile. Egypt was the only nation of the ancient world which had at once easy access to the Northern, or Mediterranean Sea, as well as to the Eastern, or Arabian Sea ; for by way of the Red Sea, Egypt always commanded an access to both these highways. The consequence was that Egypt had outlets for her own pro- ductions and inlets for those of foreign nations. The possession pf the Nile, moreover, was of immense advantage, not only on

IO COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

account of its value as a trade route, and as a means of communi- cation, but also because its waters were the fertilizing agents that made desert sands into fruitful fields. It was on the banks of this ancient river that from time immemorial the cities of the Egyptians were naturally placed ; here, therefore, are found the chief remains of the Tombs, Temples, and Pyramids.

ii. Geological. — In this section throughout the volume an endeavour will be made to trace that influence on architectural style which the materials at hand in each/country had in its development. The natural products of /a country such as wood, brick, or stone, determine to a large extent its style of art.

In Egypt there existed an abundance of limestone in the north,! of sandstone in the central region, and of granite in the south. I The latter is principally found near Assuan (Syene), and is called Syenite. This hard and lasting building material largely influenced the architecture of the country, and to its durable qualities is due the fact that there are so many remains. Bricks were also employed, but were generally faced with some harder material. Wood of a kind suitable for building was not available,/ only small forests of palm and acacia existing. J

iii. Climate. — The climate is equable and of warm temperature, snow and frost being wholly unknown, while storm, fog, and even rain are rare, which accounts to a large extent for the good preservation of the temples. Egypt has been said to have but two seasons, spring and summer. The climate was thus of importance in developing the qualities of the architecture, admit- ting of simplicity in construction, for though it demanded some I protection against heat there was no necessity to provide against inclement weather.

iv. Religion. — A close_^ojonectioji_h.etween religion and archi- tecture is everywhere manifest at this epoch. The priesthood was powerful, possessed of almost unlimited authority, and equipped with all the learning of the age. The religious rites were traditional, unchangeable, and mysterious. A tinge of mystery is one of the great characteristics of the Egyptian archi- tecture as well in its tombs as in its temples. The Egyptians attained to a very high degree of learning in astronomy, mathe- matics, and philosophy ; the remains of their literature have been preserved to us in the papyri, or MSS. written on paper made from the pith of the papyrus. In theory the religion was mono- theistic, but in practice it became polytheistic ; a multiplicity of gods was created by personifying natural phenomena, such as the sun, moon, and stars, as well as the brute creation. The Egyptians were strong believers in a future state ; hence their care in the preservation of their dead, and the erection of such everlasting monuments as the Pyramids. Herodotus mentions

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. II

that the dwelling-house was looked upon by them as a mere temporary lodging, the tomb being the permanent abode.

"What availeth thee thy other buildings? Of thy tomb alone thou art sure. On the earth thou hast nought beside ; Nought of thee else is remaining."

v. Social and Political. — A vast population was available for employment on public works, the workmen probably receiving no other pay than their food. Thus a state of cheap labour existed which was eminently favourable to the execution of large and important structures. In addition there existed a centralized despotic government which, perhaps more than any other, favoured the execution of monumental works. . It is assumed by some that the spare time which occurs during the annual floods enabled the population to be employed on these state buildings. It is also possible that the transport of stone required for the great buildings was effected by means of rafts floated down at this season. During the reign of Rameses II. the captives and foreigners, who had largely increased, ,were put to enforced labour upon the public works, and in the first chapter of the book of Exodus the natives are said to have viewed with alarm the growing numbers and power of these strangers.

vi. Historical. — Egyptian civilization is the most ancient of any of which there is a clear knowledge ; its history is partly derived from Holy Scripture and from Greek and Roman authors, but more particularly from the Egyptian buildings, by which it can be traced back for more than 4,000 years B.C. The Pyramids are thought to be a thousand years older than any building which has yet been discovered in Western Asia, the subject of the next division. The Kings or Pharaohs (from the title " Peraa " = "great house ") have been arranged in thirty dynasties, extending down to B.C. 332. These have been based on the list of Manetho, an Egyptian priest who lived about B.C. 300, and compiled a history of Egypt in the Greek language, and may be divided into the following periods : —

1. Prehistoric Period, B.C. 23000 (?)-4777-

2. The Ancient Empire (Dynasties I.-X.), B.C. 4777-2821.

The capital being at Memphis, the tombs of this period are at Abydos, Nakadeh, Memphis, Sakkara, Gizeh and Abusir.

3. The Middle Empire (Dynasties XI. -XVI.), B.C. 2821-1738.

A prosperous period in which much building was carried out. This period includes the dynasties of the " Hyskos" or shepherd kings.

4. The New Empire (Dynasties XVII.-XX.), B.C. 1738-950.

This period had Thebes as the capital, and many imposing buildings were erected at Karnac, Luxor, and elsewhere.

12 'COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

5. Penod of Foreign Domination (Dynasties XXI. -XXV.),

B.C. 950-663.

6. The Late Egyptian Period (Dynasties XXVL--XXX.), B.C. 663-

332. This period includes the Persian Domination.

7. The Grace-Roman Period, B.C. 332-A.D. 640:

i. Alexander the Great and Ptolemaic Period, B.C. 332-30. ii. The Roman Period, B.C. 3O-A.D. 395. iii. The Byzantine Period, A.D. 395-640.

8. Medieval Egypt (Mahometan Period), A.D. 640-1517.

9. Modem Egypt (Turkish Domination), A^. 1517 to the present

time.

This section of the book deals with the architecture comprised in Periods 1-7. For periods 8 and 9 see pages 653, 659. r The nineteenth dynasty, founded by Rameses I. (B.C. 1400-1366), pay be taken as the most brilliant epoch of Egyptian aft. Thie evidence of his greatness, and that of his grandson, Rameses II. (B.C. 1333-1300), as builders, is to be seen in the Temples of Thebes and elsewhere. During the twenty-sixth dynasty the country was conquered by the Persians in B.C. 527, from whom it was wrested in B.C. 332 by the Grecian general, Alexander the Great. On Alexander's death and the division of his empire, Egypt passed to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals, who founded a dynasty that ruled from B.C. 323 to B.C. 31. After the wars which ended in the death of Cleopatra, Egypt passed, as did nearly the whole of the then known world, into the hands of the conquering Romans, and became a Roman province. On the spread of Mahometanism, in A.D. 638, Egypt was conquered by the Arabs, who left important monuments (see Saracenic Architecture, page 659). In A.D. 1517 it became a part of the Turkish dominions.

2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER.

In the valley of the Nile, the land which is the gift of a great river, and the seat of the most ancient civilization, a primitive architecture of mud or puddled clay and bundles of reeds changed in later times to a style of stone and granite.

The primitive structure was composed of bundles of reeds bound together and placed vertically in the ground at intervals, the angle bundles being of greater strength. Joining these reeds, at the top, were laid horizontally other bundles, which bound the heads of the uprights together. The origin of the characteristic cornice (No. 10 j), is held to be due to the pressure of the clay, of which the primitive roofs were constructed, on the upright reeds, which formed the framework of the walls. This formed the slightly projecting cornice, the reeds keeping the rammed clay in a projecting position and allowing the curve to be terminated by a flat fillet which gave the level of the terrace. The jambs and

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. • 13

lintels of the doors and windows were made of reeds in the humbler dwellings and of palm trunks in those of more pretension.

Here, then, is seen a fair and likely prototype of the construc- tion of an Egyptian wall, the form of which is more suitable to a structure of rushes overlaid with mud or puddled clay than to one consisting of large stones. Still, an important point remains — the batter or slope which is invariably given to the walls. Viollet-le-Duc's theories as to the origin of this batter do not point to the influence of material, and this feature is alleged by him to have been introduced at a later stage, having been promulgated by a royal decree. He infers the custom to have been derived from the Pyramids, which were found to remain undisturbed during earthquakes, while straight-sided houses were upset, owing to their walls being more easily over- turned. It seems, however, more reasonable to attribute it to a mud origin, for nothing would be more natural, in order to strengthen such buildings, than to slightly tilt the bundles of reeds towards the interior, forming as it were an arch, a treatment which in any other material scarcely seems to be feasible.

Proceeding to the internal architectural features of the style, a very distinct reminiscence of the primitive reeds tied together at intervals, and crowned with the lotus bud, is found in the later granite column and capital (No. 10 L, M). During the Theban kingdom especially (B.C. 3000-3. c. 2100), examples in stone of capitals and columns derived from timber and reed originals are frequent. At Beni- Hasan some pillars represent a bundle of four reeds or lotus stalks bound together near the top and bulging above the ligature, so as to form a capital, in imitation of a lotus bud. Such a pier must evidently have been originally employed in wooden architecture only, and the roof which it supports, in this instance, represents a light wooden construction having the slight slope necessary in the dry Egyptian climate.

This type of column was largely used in later Egyptian times in a more substantial lithic form (No. 10 M), and in conjunction with the hollow-formed capital of the bell type (No. 10 L), of which the earliest example appeared in the eighteenth dynasty.

In fact, throughout, although materials changed, the forms of the early reed and clay construction were adhered to ; and the endeavour of the conservative Egyptian was to reproduce in stone and granite, superimposed in layers, the appearance assumed in the early reed and mud type.

The surface decoration executed on the later granite buildings (No. 10 p), apparently came from the " sgraffito" (incised plaster) work on the earlier mud walls. The surfaces of such walls could not be modelled or carved with projections of high relief, but their flat surfaces, when plastered, provided an admirable field for decora- tion and for instruction through the use of hieroglyphics. The

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 15

Egyptian system of decoration consisted in not contravening the form adopted, but in clothing it with a kind of drapery more or less rich, which never presented a projecting outline, contenting itself with enveloping the geometric form as would an embroidered stuff, or a diapered covering.

Remarkable then as were the arts of Egypt, it is clear that the spirit of criticism and logical method were wanting ; and that traditional forms, hallowed by long use, were clung to and repro- duced when the method of building which suggested them had been replaced by other systems. Egyptian art proceeded on an unin- terrupted line or course of tradition, and when necessity dictated a change in the methods of construction, or in the materials, the immutable form was not thereby affected, but was perpetuated in spite of novel conditions.

The principal remains of ancient Egyptian architecture are the Pyramids, or royal tombs of the kings, and the temples, a contrast in this respect with Assyria, where the palaces of the kings are the chief remains. The Egyptian wali-paintings, sculptures, jewellery, bronze implements and utensils, which have been unearthed from their temples or tombs, show that the race had attained to a high degree in art. As regards the architec- ture, the impression given to the mind of the spectator is that these buildings were erected for eternity, all the remains having a character of immense solidity, and usually of grand uniformity.

The Pyramids (Nos. 4 and 5) are the most extravagant of all ancient buildings in many ways. The relative return in impressiveness and the higher beauties of the art is small when compared with the amount of labour, expense, and material used in their erection.

The finishing and fitting of such large masses of granite is remarkable, for many of the blocks, perfectly squared, polished and fitted, are at least 20 feet long by 6 feet wide. The method of quarrying and of transportation for long distances by land and water, and the raising of these blocks of stone into position, is even now uncertain, although M. Choisy in his latest work (see Reference Books, page 30) has produced many probable theories.

The Architectural Character of the temples is striking and characteristic (Nos. 5, 7 and 8). The buildings decrease in height from front to back, presenting a disconnected collection of various sized structures, often built at different times, and thus forming a direct contrast to the harmonious whole of a Greek temple, which is all comprised within one "order" of columns, and which is distinctly, both in appearance and reality, one building.

The character of the tombs consists in the planning of their mysterious chambers and corridors, which, covered with paintings and hieroglyphics, produce an effect of gloom and solemnity on the spectator.

EGYPTIAN EXAMPLES.

THE am. m$ mm mm w&

• • • ^^ THE OTHERS.

EKnarct

mows 53 FIST

IN BREATH,* * * KW-PEET IM LHMTH^W

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 17

3. EXAMPLES. THE SPHINX

(No. 4), whose date is unknown, is situated near the great pyramids, in the centre of an ancient stone quarry, and is a natural rock cut to resemble a Sphinx, with rough masonry added in parts. An Egyptian Sphinx (No. 10 o) had the head of a king, a hawk, a ram, or more rarely a woman, on the body of a lion. The dimensions of the Great Sphinx, which represents a recum- bent lion with the head of a man, are as follows : it is 65 feet high by 188 feet long, the face is 13 feet 6 inches wide, and the mouth 8 feet 6 inches long. Greatly mutilated, it is still a marvel, as it has been throughout the ages. The symbol for an insoluble problem, it is, and probably ever will be, a mystery. It was excavated in 1816 by Captain Caviglia, who found a temple between the paws, and it has since been examined by Mariette and Maspero.

THE PYRAMIDS

of Gizeh, near Cairo, all erected during the fourth dynasty (B.C. 3998-B.c. 3721), form one of several groups within the necropolis of the ancient capital city of Memphis, and rank among the oldest monuments of Egyptian architecture. The other groups are those of Abu-Roash, Zawiyet-el- Aryan, Abusir, Sakkara, and Dashur.

These were built by the kings as their future tombs, the governing idea being to secure immortality by the preservation of the mummy, till that time should have passed, when, according to their belief, the soul would once more return to the body. Their construction has been described by many writers, including Herodotus.

The Great Pyramid (Nos. 4 and 5 c, D), by Cheops (Khufu) (B.C. 3733-B.c. 3700) ; the Second Pyramid (No. 4), by Cephron (Khafra) (B.C. 3666-6. c. 3633) ; the Third Pyramid by Mycerinos (Menkhara) (B.C. 3633-6. c. 3600), are the best known examples.

The Great Pyramid of Cheops is square on plan, 760 feet each way, its area being about 13 acres, i.e., twice the extent of S. Peter, Rome, or equal to the size of Lincoln's Inn Fields, London. The faces of the pyramid are equilateral triangles laid sloping and meeting in a point. The sides face directly north, south, east and west, as in all the pyramids, and they make an angle with the ground of 51 degrees 50 minutes. The original height was 482 feet. The entrance (No. 5 c), which is on the northern side, is 47 feet 6 inches above the base, and is now reached by means of an earthen embankment. The passage to which it

F.A. c

l8 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

gives access first slopes downwards, and afterwards re-ascends towards the heart of the pyramid, where the King's Chamber is situated. In this chamber, which is 34 feet 6 inches by 17 feet and 19 feet high, was placed the sarcophagus of the king contain- ing his embalmed body. The upper part is elaborately con- structed with stones one above the other (No. 5 D), and the entrance is protected by a massive stone acting as a portcullis, fitting into a rebate or recess, and weighing from 50 to 60 tons. Two air channels, each about 8 inches by 6 inches, led to the ~? outer face of the pyramid for ventilation.

There were two other chambers in the Great Pyramid, one known as the Queen's Chamber, connected with a passage leading off that to the King's Chamber, and the other below the ground.

The exterior of this pyramid was originally cased with a sloping face of limestone, but this has now disappeared, 'showing the original stepped surface in tiers of 4 feet, on which the casing was placed, and which still exists in the Pyramid of Mycerinos.

TOMBS.

Besides the Pyramids or royal tombs are others for private individuals.

(a.) In the Ancient Empire the Mastabas, probably derived from rude heaps of stones piled up over earlier mummy holes, were rectangular structures, with sides sloping at an angle of 75 degrees, and having flat roofs. They were divided into three parts : —

i. The outer chamber, in which were placed the offerings to

the " Ka " or " double," having its walls decorated with

representations of festal and other scenes, which are

valuable from an historical standpoint.

ii. Inner secret chambers, known as the " serdabs," containing

statues of the deceased, and members of his family. iii. A well of great depth, leading to the chamber containing

the sarcophagus with its mummy.

The Mastaba of Thy, Sakkara, is well preserved and has been restored. It dates from the fifth dynasty, and was erected to Thy, who in his day held the position of royal architect and manager of pyramids. It consists of a small vestibule, beyond which is a large court where offerings to the deceased took place, and from which a mummy shaft led through a passage to a tomb chamber. The masonry of this tomb is carefully jointed and covered with flat reliefs, which are generally considered the best specimens of their kind. The principal reliefs are in a second tomb chamber, 22 feet 9 inches by 23 feet 9 inches and 12 feet 6 inches high. These reliefs represent harvest operations, ship- building scenes, scenes representing the arts and crafts of the

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20 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

period, the slaughtering of sacrificial animals, and Thy himself sailing through the marshes in a boat with a surrounding papyrus thicket.

(b.) In the Middle Empire tombs \vere either of the Pyramidal form, as at Abydos, or were rock-cut, as in the vertical cliffs bounding the Nile valley (No. 6).

The Tombs at Beni-Hasan,in Upper Egypt, form a remark- able group of these rock-cut examples. There are 39 in all, arranged in a row in the rocks as shown (No. 6). They were made during the twelfth dynasty (B.C. 2778-^565), a period which was particularly remarkable for the progress of the arts of peace. The entrance to the Tomb of Khnemhotep, known as Tomb No. 3, has two sixteen-sided columns, sometimes considered to be a prototype of the Greek Doric order. These are slightly fluted and have an entasis, and the deeply projecting cornice has stone beams carved out of the solid rock, indicating a derivation from a wooden origin.

(c.) During the New Empire.tombs were rock-cut and structural, and in many cases accompanied by sepulchral temples.

Thebes, which for a time was the necropolis of the Egyptian kings, has a large number of tombs dating mostly from the New Empire, and forming a contrast to the pyramids which formed the graves of the earlier kings. These tombs consist of a series of chambers connected with passages hewn in the rock, and were intended only for the reception of the sarcophagi. Amongst the most important of these are those of Rameses III., IV., and IX., and that of Sethos L, usually known as Belzoni's tomb from its discoverer in 1817. The structure of all is very similar, consist- ing of three corridors cut in the rock leading into an ante-room, beyond which is the sepulchral chamber, where the granite sarcophagus was placed in a hollow in the floor. The walls, from the entrance to the sarcophagus chamber, were sculptured with hieroglyphics of pictures and texts necessary to the deceased in the future life, and mostly representing him sailing through the under-world accompanied by the sun god. The texts were mostly taken from various books relating to the ceremonies which were essential for insuring the immortality of the departed.

The mortuary or sepulchral temples, such as those of Der-el- bahri, Medinet-Habou, the Ramesseum, and others, were utilized for offerings and other funereal rights for the dead.

TEMPLES.

The purposes for which they were used and their component parts are important. They were sanctuaries where only the king and priests penetrated, and in which mysteries and processions formed a great part of the religious services. They differ,

22 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

therefore, from the Greek temple, the Christian church, and the Mahometan mosque, for they were not places for the meeting of the faithful or the recital of common prayers, and no public ritual was celebrated within them. The priests and king only were admitted beyond the hypostyle hall, and the temple, therefore, was a kind of royal oratory reared by the king in token of his own piety and in order to purchase the favour of the gods.

The student is referred to Lockyer's theories as to the orienta- tion of temples with regard to the particular stars.

The " mammeisi " were temples (dedicated to the mysterious accouchement of I sis) each consisting of one small chamber with statue and altar as at Elephantine, approached by a flight of steps. In this form they are generally considered to be the prototypes of the Greek temples. The more usual type of temple, However, consisted of chambers for the priests, with courts, colonnades, and halls, all surrounded by a high wall.

In order that the student may understand the general distribu- tion of the parts of an Egyptian temple, a plan is here given of the Temple of Khons, near the Great Temple of Ammon, at Karnac (No. 5), on the eastern bank of the Nile, which may be taken as a fair example of the ordinary type of plan.

The entrance to the temple was between "pylons," or massive / sloping towers, on each side of the central gateway (No. 7). In ( front of the entrance were placed obelisks, and in front of , these an avenue of sphinxes, forming a splendid approach to ' the temple. This entrance gave access to the large outer court- yard, which was open to the sky in the centre, and therefore I called "hypaethral" (from two Greek words, meaning "under the air "). This courtyard was surrounded by a double colonnade on three sides, and led up to the hypostyle hall, in which light was admitted by means of a clerestory above, formed by the different height of the columns (No. 5 B). Beyond this is the sanctuary, surrounded by a passage, and at the rear is a smaller hall ; both the last chambers must have been dark or only imperfectly lighted.

The whole collection of buildings forming the temple was surrounded by a great wall as high as the buildings themselves.

Thebes, the site of w'hich occupied a large area on the east and west banks of the Nile, was the capital of Egypt during the New Empire (Dynasties XVII. -XX.). The eastern bank had an important group of Temples at Karnac, including the Great Temple of Ammon, and the Temple of Khons (twentieth dynasty). At Luxor, also on the eastern bank, was another Temple of Ammon (eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties). On the western bank lay the Necropolis or Tombs of the Kings and Queens, and a large number of mortuary temples, which included those of Der-el-bahri, the Ramesseum, and Medinet Habou.

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24 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

The Great Temple of Ammon, Karnac, is the grandest, \ extending over an area of 1,200 feet by 360 feet, and originally \ was connected with the Temple of Luxor by an avenue of sphinxes. It was not built on an original plan, but owes its size, disposition and magnificence to the additions of many later kings, from the first monarchs of the twelfth dynasty down to the Ptolemaic period. It has six pylons added in successive genera- tions, a great court measuring 338 feet by 275 feet, the great hypostyle hall, and other halls, courts and/ a sanctuary. The Hypostyle hall measures 338 feet by 170 /feet, covering about the same area as Notre Dame, Paris. The roof is supported by 134 columns in sixteen rows. The central avenues are about 80 feet in height as compared with 140 feet at Amiens Cathedral, and have columns 69 feet high and nf feet in diameter, the capitals of which are of the lotus blossom type (No. 10 L) so as to receive the light from the" clerestory. The side avenues are about 46 feet high and have columns 42 feet 6 inches in height and 9 feet in diameter, the Capitals being of the lojus t>u.<J type, on which the clerestory light would fall. The impression pro- duced on the spectator by the forest of columns is most awe- inspiring, and the eye is led from the smaller columns of the side avenues, which gradually vanish into semi-darkness, giving an idea of unlimited size, to the larger columns of the central avenues lighted by the clerestory, which is formed in the differ- ence of height between the central and side avenues, a form of lighting more fully developed in the Gothic period. The walls of the hall, the column shafts, and the architraves are covered with incised inscriptions, still retaining their original colored decora- tions relating to the gods and personages concerned in the erection of the structure.

The Temple of Sethos I., Abydos, was dedicated to Osiris and other deities of Abydos. It was built by Sethos I. (B.C. 1366-1333), and completed by Rameses II. (B.C. 1333-1300). The walls are of fine grained limestone, and the reliefs on them are among the finest Egyptian sculptures. In common with other temples it has pylons, a first and second fore-court and two hypostyle halls, but instead of one sanctuary it has seven arranged side by side, dedicated to six deities and a deified king ; hence the front of this temple was divided into seven parts, each with its separate gateway and portal. The seven sanctuaries are each roofed by means of horizontal courses, every course project- ing beyond that immediately below, and the undersides afterwards rounded off in the form of a vault by the chisel. It further differs from others in having a wing at right angles to the main structure in consequence of a hill immediately behind the temple.

The Great Temple of Abu-Simbel, built by Rameses II. (B.C. 1333-1300), is one of the most stupendous creations of

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 25

Egyptian architecture, and was entirely excavated out of the solid rock. It has a fore-court, at the back of which is the imposing facade, 119 feet wide and over 100 feet high, formed as a pylon, and having four seated colossi of Rameses II., each over 65 feet in height. The entrance leads to a vestibule, the ceiling of which is supported by eight pillars, the walls having vividly colored reliefs. Eight smaller chambers, probably used to store the temple utensils and furniture, adjoin this vestibule, and in the rear is a small hypos tyle hall, 36 feet by 25 feet, having four pillars. Behind this is a long narrow chamber out of which are three apartments, the centre and largest one being the sanctuary, with an altar and four seated figures of the deities worshipped.

The Temple of Isis, Island of Philse, is an interesting example of the Ptolemaic period, and, like earlier examples, was the work of several generations. The fore-court, entered through a massive pylon, 150 feet broad and 60 feet high, has on the west side the Birth House, a small colonnaded temple dedicated to Hathor-Isis and to the memory of the birth of her son Horus, and on the east a colonnaded building used by the priests. On the fourth side of the court is the second pylon, which is 105 feet broad and 40 feet high. Beyond is the temple proper, consisting of courts, a hypostyle hall with eight columns, two small vesti- bules, a sanctuary, and other adjoining chambers, all nearly in total darkness. This group, including the second pylon, has its axis at an angle to that of the first pylon and courtyard. The entire structure has the walls, both inside and out, covered with inscriptions.

The Temple of Hathor, Dendera (A.D. first century), is another Ptolemaic example, but was not completed till the reign of Augustus. It has no pylons, fore-court, or enclosing outer walls, but has a great vestibule with twenty-four columns, six of which form the fa9ade, having low screen walls between them on either side of the central entrance. Behind this is the hypostyle hall, having six columns with elaborate Hathor-headed capitals. On each side of this hall and beyond are chambers, used as lavatory, treasury, store-rooms ; and behind are two ante-chambers with a sanctuary beyond. Staircases on either side lead to the roof of the temple.

During the Graeco- Roman period many temples were erected, of which the Temple of Edfou, commenced by Ptolemy III. (B.C. 237), is the best preserved example. A massive pylon, faced with reliefs and inscriptions, gave access to a great court, surrounded by a colonnade. The back of this court was formed by the front of the great hypostyle hall, the portal of which was the centre intercolumniation of a row of six columns, the narrower spaces between the side columns having low screen walls (No. 8). Twelve larger columns with elaborate capitals support

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EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 27

the roof over this hall, beyond which was a smaller hypostyle hall, the roof of which was carried by twelve columns, having rich floral capitals, embellished by so-called heads of Hathor. Behind this were vestibules, smaller chambers, and the sanctuary.

OBELISKS

are monumental pillars, originally employed in pairs before the principal entrances of temples. They are monoliths, i.e., single upright stones, square on plan with slightly rounded faces, and tapering sides, with a pyramidal summit. The height is usually about nine to ten times as great as the diameter, and the four faces were cut with hieroglyphics. The capping was of metal, for the groove into which it was fitted is in some cases still visible. The quarrying and transport of such a mass of stone without the power of a steam-engine was" an engineering feat of considerable skill.

Many obelisks were removed from Egypt by the Roman emperors, and at least twelve are in Rome itself. That in the centre of the Piazza of S. John Lateran is the largest in existence. It is of red granite from Syene, and is 104 feet high, or with the pedestal 153 feet, 9 feet square at the base, 6 feet 2 inches at the top, and altogether weighs about 600 tons.

Cleopatra's Needle on the Thames Embankment, another example, brought to London from Alexandria, although originally erected at Heliopolis (B.C. 1500), is 68 feet 6 inches high, 8 feet square at the base, and weighs 180 tons.

DWELLINGS.

All these have disappeared, being only built of wood or of sun-dried bricks. Houses are shown on paintings and sculptures which have come down to us, from which they appear to have had one, two, or three stories.

In the absence of any authentic remains, an illustration of the Egyptian House is given (No. 9), conjecturally restored, and erected at the Paris Exhibition, 1889, by M. Charles Gamier. The design was founded on an ancient painting, and had a garden in front, laid out in a formal style, with fish-ponds. The house was divided by a corridor in the centre, giving access to the rooms. The staircase at the back led to a verandah, and also to a flat roof, extending over the whole length of the structure. The whole building was treated with color, the upper part of the house being painted a bright yellow, and the long external wooden columns blue.

28 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

4. COMPARATIVE.

A. Plans. — The temples have already been slightly compared with Greek examples (pages 15 and 22), and as already noticed they were especially planned for internal effect. The hypostyle hall seemingly unlimited in size, crowded with pillars, and mysteriously illuminated from above, realized the grandest con- ceptions of Egyptian planning (No. 5). Externally the massive pylons ornamented with incised decorations formed the chief facade, a contrast being obtained by the /slender obelisks which usually stood in front of them, while the approach was through an impressive avenue of innumerable sphinxes.

The erection of these temples was in progress during many centuries by means of continual additions. In this respect they resemble the growth of English cathedrals ; as also in the disregard for symmetry in the planning of one part in relation to another. This may be seen in many of the later temples erected under the Ptolemys, the temple on the island of Philae being a notable instance. The walls, the pylons, and other features are placed on different axes, free from any pretence of regularity. The freedom and picturesqueness of grouping thus obtained is remarkable.

B. Walls. — These were immensely thick, and in important buildings were of granite, while in the less important they were of brick faced with granite.

The faces of the temple walls slope inwards or batter towards the top, giving them a massive appearance (No. 7). Viollet-le- Duc traces this inclination to the employment of mud for the walls of early buildings. Columns which form the leading features of Greek external architecture are not found on the exterior of Egyp- tian buildings, which have normally a massive blank wall crowned with a characteristic cornice, consisting of a large hollow and roll moulding (No. 10 j, M). For the purposes of decoration, the walls, even when of granite, were generally covered with a fine plaster, in which were executed low reliefs, treated with bright color (Nos. 7 and 10 P). Simplicity, solidity, and grandeur, qualities obtained by broad masses of unbroken walling, are the chief characteristics of the style.

c. Openings. — These were all square-headed and covered with massive lintels, for the style being essentially trabeated, the arch appears to have been but little used. Window openings are seldom found in temples, light being admitted by the clerestories in the earlier examples at Thebes, or over the low dwarf walls between the columns of the front row, as at Luxor, Edfou (No. 8), Dendera, or Philae, a method peculiar to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.

D. Roofs. — These were composed of massive blocks of stone supported by the enclosing walls and the closely spaced columns

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 2Q

(No. 5 F). Being flat, they could be used in dwelling-houses (No. 9) as a pleasant rendezvous for the family in the evening for the enjoyment of the view and the fresh breezes which spring up at sunset, and at certain seasons may have been used for repose. They may also have been used in the daytime, if protected from the sun by temporary awnings. The flat roofs of the temples seem to have been used in the priestly processions. In the rock- cut temples the ceilings are sometimes slightly arched in form, and as at the tombs at Beni- Hasan, the roofing is made to represent timber construction (No. 6).

E. Columns. — The papyrus, a tall, smooth reed, and the lotus, a large white water-lily of exquisite beauty, offered many sugges- tions. The columns, seldom over sijL-diaTTlf^PT£-ip hejgbj-, were made to represent the stalks, and at intervals appear to be tied by bands (No. 10). The capitals_wej^_mostly derived from the_Jptus plant (No. 10 D, E, F),"as follows:—

~"~(^-) The lotus bud, conventionalized, tied round by stalks

(No. 10 M).

(b.) The fully-grown lotus flower, which formed a bell-shaped capital, sculptured or ornamented with color decoration (No. 10 L). (c.) The " palm" capital, the main outline of the palms being

painted or sculptured (No. 10 K).

In addition, the Isis or Hathor-headed capital, as at Dendera and Philae, is formed of heads of the goddess Isis, supporting the model of a pylon (No. 10 G).

F. Mouldings. — These were few, viz., the hollow and bead generally used in conjunction, but the bead was also used by itself. The two combined invariably crowned the upper part of the pylons (Nos. 7 and 10 j, M), and walls.

G. Ornament (No. 10). — This was symbolical, and was an important element in the style, including such features as the solar disc or globe and the vulture with outspread wings (No. 10 N), as a symbol of protection, while diaper patterns, spirals (No. 10 A, B) and the feather ornament (No. 10 c) were largely used. The scarab, or sacred beetle, was considered by the Egyptians as the sign of their religion, much in the same way as the cross became the symbol of Christianity. It probably attained its sacred character as the emblem of resurrection because of its habit of allowing the sun to hatch its eggs from a pellet of refuse. It must be remembered that the decoration of the walls of a temple consisted largely in acts of adoration on the part of the monarch to his gods, to whose protection he ascribed all his warlike successes. The Egyptians were masters in the use of color, chiefly using the primary ones — blue, red, and yellow. The wall to be decorated was prepared as follows : (a) It was first chiselled smooth and covered with a thin layer of plaster or cement,

3O COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

after which a colored wash was put over the whole, (b) The figures or hieroglyphics were then drawn on with a red line by an artist, being corrected with a black line by the chief artist ; (c) the sculptor next incised the outline, rounding slightly the inclosed form towards its boundaries ; (d) the painter then executed his work in the strong hues of the primary colors. (See the Egyptian Court at the Crystal Palace.) The hieroglyphics were often, how- ever, incised direct on the granite and then colored, as may be seen on the sculptures at the British Museum. They are instruc- tive as well as decorative, and from then! is learnt most of what is known of Egyptian history (No. 10 p).

The Egyptians possessed great power of conventionalizing natural objects such as the lotus plant, the symbol of fertility and abundance, produced by the overflowing Nile, the palm, the papyrus, and others, each being copied as the motif for a design, being treated by the artists in a way suitable to the material in which they were working. The distinguishing, or essential, feature of the natural object, or its class, thus passed by a process of idealizing into forms adapted for ornamentation.

5. REFERENCE BOOKS.

Champollion (J. F., le jeune). — " Monuments de l'£gypte et de la Nubie." 6 vols., folio. Paris, 1845.

Choisy (A.). — "L'art debatir chezles Egyptians." Imp.Svo. Paris, 1904.

" Description de l'£gypte" (known as " Napoleon's Egypt "). 23 vols., large folio. Paris, 1809-1822.

Erman (A.). — " Life in Ancient Egypt." 8vo. 1894.

Herz(M.). — "Mosqueedu Sultan Hassan au Caire." Folio. Cairo, 1899.

Lepsius (R.). — " Denkmaeler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien." 12 vols., large folio, and i vol. text. Berlin, 1849-1859.

Maspero (G.). — "The Dawn of 'Civilization." 8vo. 1897.

Perrot and Chipiez. — " History of Art in Ancient Egypt." 8vo. 1883.

Petrie (W. N. F.).— " The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh." 410. 1883.

Petrie. — " Ten Years Digging in Egypt." 8vo. 1 892.

Petrie. — " Egyptian Decorative Art." 8vo." 1895.

Prisse d'Avennes (E.). — "Histoire de 1'Art £gyptien." 2 vols., large folio, and text in 4to. Paris, 1879.

Rawlinson (G.). — " History of Ancient Egypt." 2 vols., 8vo. 1881.

Smyth (C. Piazzi).— " Life and Work at the Great Pyramid, 1865." 3 vols., 8vo. Edinburgh, 1867.

Publications of the " Archaeological Survey of Egypt " and the " Egypt Exploration Fund."

Ebers (G.). — "An Egyptian Princess." (Historical Novel.)

Haggard (H. Rider).—" Cleopatra."

Ward (T.).— " The Sacred Beetle." Demy 8vo. 1902.

The Egyptian Court at the Crystal Palace and the Egyptian Rooms at the British Museum give a good idea of the Architecture and decoration of the style. The latter place contains a most complete collection of Egyptian antiquities, which will give the student a better knowledge of the style than can be gleaned merely from books.

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II.

WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHI TECTURE.

" Babylon,

Learned and wise, hath perished utterly, Nor leaves her speech one word to aid the sigh That would lament her." — WORDSWORTH.

i. INFLUENCES.

i. Geographical. — On referring to the map (No. n) it will be seen that the principal ancient cities of Western Asia were situated in the valley of the twin-rivers Tigris and Euphrates. The district was one of the earliest seats of civilization, being celebrated for its great fertility, and has been styled the cradle and tomb of nations and empires. The plain of Mesopotamia, once the seat of a high civilization, was irrigated by numerous canals between the above-mentioned rivers, and was highly culti- vated, supporting an immense population round Nineveh and Babylon.

The earliest known buildings appear to have been erected at the mouth of the great rivers draining the country, and in this respect can be compared with Egypt (No. 3), where the

WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 33

Pyramids and other early structures were near the delta of the Nile. In Western Asia the march of civilization spread north- wards from Babylon (the Gate of God) to Nineveh, while in Egypt it spread southwards from Memphis to Philse, but in both cases it developed from the sea inland.

ii. Geological. — The whole district of Chaldaea or Lower Mesopotamia is alluvial, being formed of the thick mud or clay deposited by the two great rivers Tigris and Euphrates. The soil, containing no stone and bearing no trees, could be made into bricks, which thus became the usual building material. The general body of the walls was constructed of the ordinary sun- dried bricks, while " kiln-burnt " and sometimes glazed or vitrified bricks of different colors were used as a facing. As a cementing material, bitumen or pitch, applied in a heated state, seems to have been used, being obtained from bitumen springs found in the district, as at Is, on the Euphrates. Mortar, made of calcareous earth, was used in the latest periods.

In Assyria, where stone was not scarce, the walls were also faced, internally and externally, with alabaster or limestone slabs, on which were carved the bas-reliefs or inscriptions, which are so important from an historical point of view.

iii. Climate. — The unhealthy exhalations from the vast swamps in Chaldaea, and the swarms of aggressive and venomous insects infesting the entire region during the long summer, rendered the construction of elevated platforms for the towns and palaces not only desirable, but almost essential. Moreover, the floods during the rainy season, when torrents fell for weeks at a time, further demanded the need for such structures.

Persia is for the most part a high tableland and has been described as a country of sunshine, gardens, and deserts, with a climate ranging from the extremes of heat and cold.

iv. Religion. — The people were worshippers of the heavenly bodies, such as the sun and the moon, and of the powers of nature, such as the wind and thunder. Numbers of omen tablets have survived, and bear witness to the extreme superstition which existed.

Ormuzd, the god of light and of good, as opposed to Ahriman, the god of darkness and evil, was worshipped with fire as his symbol. Temples, and even images, do not seem to have been necessary, as sacrifices and the worship of fire and sun appear to have been conducted in the open air, and thus the essential stimulus was wanting for the rise and development of religious art. On the other hand, the man-headed bulls, placed at the entrances of temples and palaces, probably had a mythical mean- ing, and appear to belong to the class of beneficent genii or to that of the great deities of the Chaldaean pantheon.

v. Social and Political. — Judging from their history, the

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34 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

Assyrians were a sturdy, warlike, but cruel people, and in their battles the conquering monarchs took thousands of prisoners, who were employed in raising the enormous mounds mentioned here- after. It has been calculated by-Rawlinson that the erection of the great plat orm or mound of Koyunjik — upon which the build- ings of Nineveh stood — would require the united exertions of 10,000 men for twelve years, after which the palaces would have to be built.

The Assyrian sculptures give in a very /ninute way the social conditions of the period, and show us the" costumes of the time and the military character of the period, for'the long inscriptions and series of pictures with which the palace walls were covered form an illustrated history of the battles and sieges of succeeding monarchs, the sculptor thus explaining the political events of the period in a lasting manner.

The cuneiform or wedge-shaped characters which form the inscriptions consist of groups of strokes placed in different positions. These characters were impressed on clay tablets or cylinders, while still moist, with a triangular ended instrument of wood, bone, or metal. Libraries of these strange MSS. were formed on a large scale, and by the translation of these inscriptions much knowledge of the social condition has been acquired.

The Persian astronomer-poet, Omar Khayyam, in his writings, indicates the national love of beauty and the influence exerted by environment and climate.

vi. Historical. — From the study of Assyrian history can be gleaned certain facts which considerably assist in forming the divisions of the periods. The earliest Babylonian king mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions was Eannadu, who reigned B.C. 4500, and the empire he founded was gradually extended northwards, following the course of the great river Tigris. In B.C. 1700 Assyria, the northern part of the early Babylonian empire, asserted her independence and became the great power of Western Asia.

Of the Assyrian kings, the most celebrated was Sargon (B.C. 722-705), who erected the great palace at Khorsabad ; he was the first Assyrian king who came in contact with the Egyptian army, then in alliance with the Philistines, a combina- tion of forces which he defeated. The Assyrians conquered and occupied Egypt in B.C. 672, sacking the ancient city of Thebes in B.C. 666 ; but the Egyptians finally shook themselves free from the Assyrian yoke. The destruction of Nineveh took place in B.C. 609, and the great Assyrian kingdom was then divided among its conquerors, Assyria being handed over to the Medes. Babylon then took the leading place until it was finally conquered by the Persians, a hardy race from the mountainous district north of the Persian Gulf, under Cyrus, in B.C. 539. The reigns of Darius (B.C. 521-485; and Xerxes (B.C. 485- 465) are important as being

WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 35

those in which some of the most interesting palaces were erected at Susa and Persepolis. The country remained under the rule of the Persians until the time of Alexander the Great, B.C. 333, when it became a possession of the Greeks. The conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B.C. 525, and the dazzling impression left by the marvellous buildings of Memphis and Thebes, caused the development of the use of the column amongst the Persians. In the seventh century A. D., the Arabs overran the country and settled there — Bagdad becoming a new capital of great magnificence. Towards the close of the tenth century, the Turks, a barbarous people pouring in from the east, settled in the country, which is at the present moment in a desolate state owing to Turkish misrule.

2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER.

The banks of the Tigris and Euphrates presented only alluvial plains, where wood suitable for building was rare. The country, however, possessed an abundance of clay, which, being com- pressed in flat square moulds and dried in the sun, was the material of which were formed the huge platforms upon which temples and palaces were built. These immense plat- forms were at first faced with sun-dried bricks, and sub- sequently with kiln-burnt bricks, or in the later Assyrian period with stone slabs from the mountains that separate Assyria from Media. It will be perceived how the salient characteristics of the architecture may be explained by the nature of the materials at hand, for the walls being of brick, each unit, in general, was a repetition of its neighbour, and rarely of special shape. The buildings thus constructed could only be decorated by attached ornament, similar in principle to the mats and hangings spread over floors 'or -walls as a covering, for the Assyrians either cased their walls with alabaster or with a skin of glazed brickwork of many colors.

The arch was applied to important openings (No. 12) and also to vaults. In some cases it was not a true arch, but one formed by corbelling or projecting horizontal courses. The true arch however was also practised, being probably accidentally hit upon through the use of small units ; for as the Chaldaeans were unable to support walls over openings upon beams of stone or timber, owing to the lack of these materials in suitable forms, they had to devise some other means for doing so. It is a general law, which study and comparison will confirm, that the arch was earliest discovered and most invariably employed by those builders who found them- selves condemned by the geological formation of their country to the employment of the smallest units.

Arches, therefore, in the absence of piers, rested on thick and

D 2

36 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

solid walls ; and whether used for the formation of vaulted drains under the immense platforms, or to form imposing entrances of colored and glazed brickwork in elaborate fasades, held a space of extreme importance in the style.

In Chaldaea, isolated supports, such as are found in the hypostyle halls of Egypt and Persia, or in Greek temples and Latin basilicas, were not used, for the want of suitable stone rendered any such arrangement impossible. The Chaldaeans and Assyrians scarcely ever used stone constructively except as the/envelope for a brick wall ; but on the other hand as stone was abundant in the rocky country of Persia, the Persians used it for walls and columns at Susa and Persepolis. Assyria undoubtedly gave many of her architectural forms to Persia, who later borrowed much from Egypt and Asiatic Greece.

The bracket and scroll capitals of the columns at Persepolis and Susa retain much of the form of their wooden prototypes, and demonstrate very clearly that a form which, applied to wood, is natural and inoffensive, becomes inappropriate when applied to stone (No. 13 A, c, G).

Texier's description of the great mosque at Ispahan might, it is believed, be applied with general accuracy to the palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis, if the power of a Merlin could bring them back to our view : " Every part of the building, without exception, is covered with enamelled bricks. Their ground is blue, upon which elegant flowers and sentences taken from the Koran are traced in white. The cupola is blue decorated with shields and arabesques. One can hardly imagine the effect produced by such a building on an European accustomed to the dull uniformity of our colorless buildings." The palaces would differ principally from the description of this mosque owing to the rules of the Koran as to the prohibition in sculpture and decoration of the copying of natural objects (page 654).

The appearance of the monuments must, however, be entirely left to the imagination, for the effect of the towering masses of the palaces, planted on the great platforms, and approached from the plains by broad stairways, can only be imagined. The portal, flanked by colossal winged bulls (Nos. 12 B, F, G, H, and 13 D, E), led to an audience-chamber paved with carved slabs of alabaster. This apartment had a dado, 12 feet high, of sculptured slabs, with representations of battles and hunting scenes (No. 13 F, H), and was surmounted by a frieze containing figures of men and animals in glazed and brightly colored brick- work ; a beamed roof of cedar, through which small openings gave a sufficient illumination, probably covered the apartment (No. 12 B).

At Khorsabad an ornamentation of semi-cylinders in juxta- position was employed externally, a style of decoration which

WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 37

is a last reminiscence of the timber stockading which had originally served to keep up the tempered earth before the regular use of sun-dried bricks.

In Asia Minor many of the buildings present stone forms borrowed from a timber type, and the influence of this tradition is better seen in the tombs of Lycia than in any other remains. An example of one of these at the British Museum has a double podium (cf. Glossary) upon which is placed a chest or sarcophagus crowned with a roof of pointed-arch form, the mortises and framing, including the pins, being copied from a wooden form. In Lycia many rock-cut tombs present flat and sloping roofs, in which unhewn timbers were copied ; and the last stage shows an Ionic facade certainly developed from these carpentry forms (No. 41 F).

The copying of timber forms in stone has also been traced in Egypt ; in India, where it was introduced by the Bactrian Greeks, between the second and third century B.C., and in Greece some- what earlier than in Lycia, in the seventh century B.C. It may, therefore, be admitted that a material from which a style is evolved continues for a period to have its influence even when another material is substituted. It was only, however, in the infancy of stone architecture that timber forms were adhered to ; for as soon as habit gave familiarity with the new material, the incongruities of such forms applied to stone structures were by degrees abandoned, and features suitable to the new material were evolved.

3. EXAMPLES.

Western Asiatic Architecture can be divided into three tolerably distinct periods :—

(a.) The first or Babylonian (Chaldaean) period (B.C. 4000 (?)- 1290).

(b.) The second or Assyrian period (B.C. 1290-538).

(c.) The third or Persian period (B.C. 538-333).

THE FIRST OR BABYLONIAN PERIOD

was a temple-biiilding epoch, the principal remains being the temple of Birs-Nimroud near Babylon, and the temple at Khorsabad.

Colonel Rawlinson has shown by 'his investigations that the Temple of Birs-Nimroud was dedicated to the seven heavenly spheres.

In Chaldaea every city had its " ziggurat " (holy mountain), surmounted by a richly decorated temple chamber, which served as a shrine and observatory from which astrological studies could be made (No. 12 A, c, D).

These temples were several stories in height, constructed in

ASSYRIAN EXAMPLES.

OT CONSTRUCTION .

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12.

WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 39

receding terraces, and each of different colored glazed bricks. A walled inclosure surrounded the whole structure. The angles of these temples were made to face the cardinal points, in contrast to the Egyptian pyramids, whose sides were so placed.

The attempts of the Babylonians to build a tower which should " reach to heaven " (Gen. xi. 4), may be referred to here, and it is a fact worth noting that in Western Asia and Egypt, countries both remarkable for their dulness and sameness of aspect, man should have attempted his highest flights of audacity in the way of artificial elevations.

THE SECOND OR ASSYRIAN PERIOD

was a palace -biiUding epoch, and terminated with the destruction of Babylon by Cyrus, B.C. 539.

The principal remains are the palaces at Nineveh (or Koyunjik), Nimroud, and Khorsabad.

The Palace of Sargon, Khorsabad (B.C. 722-705), is the best example of the general type, and has been the most completely studied by means of systematic excavations, chiefly by Place. It was erected about nine miles north- north-east of the ancient city of Nineveh, and with its various courts, chambers, and corridors is supposed to have occupied an area of 25 acres. As in all Assyrian palaces, it was raised upon a terrace or platform of brickwork faced with stone, 46 feet above the plain, from which it was reached by means of broad stairways and sloping planes or ramps. The palace contained three distinct groups of apartments, corresponding to the divisions of any palatial residence of modern Persia, Turkey, or India, viz. : — (a.) The Seraglio, including the palace proper, the men's apartments, ajid the reception rooms for visitors, in all containing 10 courts, and no less than 60 rooms or passages ; (&.) the Harem, with the private apartments of the prince and his family ; and (c.) the Khan or service chambers, arranged round an immense courtyard, having an area of about 2| acres, and form- ing the principal court of the palace. There was also a temple observatory on the western side of the platform. The great entrance portals on the south-east facade led into the great court already mentioned. These portals formed probably the most impressive creations of Assyrian Architecture, and were rendered imposing by no fewer than ten human-headed winged bulls, 19 feet in height (No. 12 F, G, H), examples of which are now pre- served in the British Museum. In the principal apartments a sculptured dado of alabaster about 10 feet high, which seems to have been sometimes treated with color, lined the lower portions of the walls, above which was a continuous frieze of colored and glazed brickwork. Conjectural restorations have been made by various authorities (No. 12 B).

40 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

The excavations of the Palace of Sennacherib, Nineveh, B.C. 705-681, and the Palace of Ashur-nasir-pal, Nimroud, B.C. 885-860, have revealed a large amount of information concerning Assyrian Palaces, and many of the sculptures with which the walls were lined are now in the British Museum.

The method of roofing is still much in dispute. Some authorities hold that the long and narrow rooms were roofed with beams of poplar or palm, resting upon the summits of the walls, and that the large halls would have a central portion open to the sky, with porticos around, similar to that of a Roman atrium. Other autho- rities hold that the arch, which was used largely in the drains and water channels of the great platforms and in the city gates (No. 12 F), also played an important part in the construction of the palaces themselves, specially in view of the thickness of the walls, which would indicate that the architect had to provide solid abutments for arched vaults which supported a heavy roof. From a bas-relief found by Layard, it would appear that domed roofs both spherical and elliptical were also employed.

THE THIRD OR PERSIAN PERIOD,

from the time of Cyrus to that of Alexander the Great, has important remains of palaces, tombs and temples, at Susa, Persepolis, and Passagardae.

The Persians having no architecture of their own, proceeded to adapt that of the conquered Assyrians, as later the Romans assimilated that of the Greeks.

In the neighbourhood of their new cities, Susa and Persepolis, good stone was to be found, and, as a consequence, many architectural features, which are wanting in the earlier periods, are still extant.

Persepolis, one of the important capitals of Persia, has inte- resting remains of no less than eight different buildings. These were erected on a great platform, 1,500 feet long by 1,000 feet wide, of four different levels, partly cut out of the solid rock and partly built up. It was from 20 to 50 feet above the plain and was reached by a wide stairway on the western side. The most important buildings erected by Darius are his Palace and the Hall of the Hundred Columns, while his son Xerxes built the Propylsea, the Hypostyle Hall and a famous palace. The Hall of the Hundred Columns, 225 feet square, was probably used as an audience and throne-hall. It was surrounded by a brick wall, 10 feet 8 inches thick, in which were forty- four stone doorways and windows. The bas-reliefs are on a magnificent scale, representing the king surrounded by the arms of subject states, receiving ambassadors, rows of warriors and other subjects. The columns, of which only one is still in situ, had capitals of curious vertical

WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 41

Ionic-like scrolls (No. 13 G), or of the double-bull or double-horse types (No. 13 A, c). The Hypostyle Hall of Xerxes (B.C. 485), probably used as a throne room, and having no enclosing walls, occupied an area larger than the Hypostyle Hall at Karnac, or any Gothic cathedral except Milan. It originally had seventy-two black marble columns, 67 feet in height, arranged in a somewhat novel manner supporting a flat roof. Of these only seventeen now exist, and have capitals either of brackets and volutes, or formed of a pair of unicorns or bulls ; the bases are bell-shaped (No. 13 A, c, G) and the shafts are fluted with fifty-two flutes.

Susa has important remains in the palaces of Xerxes and Artaxerxes, from which splendid examples of colored and glazed brickwork have been excavated, especially the frieze of lions and the frieze of archers in which the figures, about 5 feet high, are now in the Louvre, Paris, and give a good idea of the glazed and colored work of the Persians.

The Tomb of Darius, Naksh-i-Rustam, near Persepolis, has a rock cut fa9ade, reproducing the Palace of f)arius, and forming one of four rock-hewn sepulchres of the Akhaemenian kings. In this fa9ade the columns are of the double-bull type with cornice over, above which are two rows of figures supporting a prayer platform, upon which stood a statue of the king, about 7 feet high, with his arm uplifted towards an image of the god Ormuzd.

Jewish Architecture. — The Hebrews apparently borrowed their architectural forms from Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek and Roman sources. Remains are unimportant, consisting principally of tombs in the valleys near Jerusalem.

The only great attempt at a monumental structure was the Temple at Jerusalem. This was commenced by Solomon (B.C. 1012), and the biblical description (i Kings vi., vii., 2 Chronicles iii., iv.) is interesting, portraying entrance pylons, courts, cedar woodwork, metal work, and the isolated brazen columns Jachin and Boaz. The Temple was afterwards added to by Herod (B.C. 18), and the site is now occupied by the Mosque of Omar. (Page 659.)

4. COMPARATIVE.

A. Plan. — A special character was given to the temples of the early, and the palaces of the later period, by raising them on terraces or platforms some 30 feet to 50 feet in height (No. 12 G), and by grouping the buildings round quadrangles. Whereas the sides of the Egyptian pyramids face the cardinal points of the compass, the angles of the Assyrian ziggurats were so placed. Egyptian temples were designed mainly for internal effect, while Assyrian palaces were designed so as to be effective inter- nally and externally, being raised on the platforms mentioned above.

UBN HUNT, nOA me NORTH *0Tlll]KEJITfflfllOO&.

KINS OTEB ON HI5 T«ROWE WITH

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WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 43

B. Walls. — The Assyrians in the early period used stone only as a facing to their brick walls, forming a contrast with the solid marble work of the Greeks, and with the constructive use of stone and granite by the Egyptians.

In Assyria, the massive walls, which were of cased brickwork, only remain, the columns being of wood having perished. In Persia, however, the walls which were thin have disappeared, leaving the massive stone or marble blocks forming the door and window openings, immense columns, and broad stairways which alone have survived the ravages of time.

The slabs of alabaster with which the walls of the palaces were faced reveal much of the social history of the people, and many of the slabs are now in the British Museum (No. 13).

c. Openings. — The lighting to the temples is conjectural, but it appears to have been effected by means of a "clerestory" (No. 12 B), somewhat similar to that in use in the Egyptian temples.

It is believed that the Assyrian architects counted chiefly on the doorways, which were of great size, to give their buildings a sufficient supply of light and air, and openings may also have been formed in the upper parts of the walls.

The use of the arch, both circular and pointed, was practised by the Assyrians, as is proved by the discoveries of Sir Henry Layard at Nimroud, and of M. Place at Khorsabad (No. I2F, G, H), where semi-circular arches spring from the backs of winged bulls with human heads.

D. Roofs. — The roofing appears to have been effected by means of timber beams reaching from one column to the next, and resting on the backs of the "double-bull" capitals (No. 12 B).

Some authorities consider that the halls of the palaces were covered with brick tunnel vaults, but in many cases the roof of con- siderable thickness was flat, formed of very tough but plastic clay and debris, and kept in condition by being occasionally rolled, as in modern eastern houses. Perrot and Chipiez, however, are of opinion that Assyrian builders made use of domes in addition to barrel vaults, because of the discovery of a bas-relief at Koyunjik in which groups of buildings roofed with spherical or elliptical domes are shown. Strabo (xvi. i. 5) also mentions expressly that all the houses of Babylon were vaulted.

E. Columns. — These were primarily of wood, but in the later period at Persepolis, the Persians, on their return from Egypt, built them of the natural stone which had been wanting in Chaldsea. They were not so massive as in Egypt, where stone roofs had to be supported.

The capitals were characteristic, being of the "double-bull," . " double-unicorn," " double-horse " or " double-griffen " type (No. 13 A, c), and the Ionic scroll occurs in some examples.

F. Mouldings.— As in the case of Egypt, in Western Asia

44 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

the use of mouldings does not appear to have advanced to any great extent. In the Assyrian palaces the sculptured slabs and colored surfaces took their place. At Persepolis the bead, hollow and ogee mouldings may be noticed in the bases, while the volutes of the capital were treated with plain sinkings.

G. Ornament. — The Assyrian sculptures in alabaster exhibit considerable technical skill and refinement, while the repousse pattern work on bronze bowls, shields, and gate fittings is also notable. From the decorative treatment of Assyrian architecture can be traced much of the peculiar and characteristic detail used by the Greeks, and on the sculptured slabs (No. 13 B, F. H), already mentioned at Nimroud and Nineveh, are represented buildings with columns and capitals of Ionic and Corinthian form in embryo.

Further, it may be said, that Greece took from Assyria the idea of the sculptured friezes, the colored decorations, and the honeysuckle (No. 12 j) and guilloche ornaments, the latter being seen in a pavement slab from the palace at Nineveh (Koyunjik), now in the British Museum.

In the next chapter it will be seen that Greece adopted much of her decorative art from the preceding styles of Egypt and Western Asia, which are thus of extreme interest in enabling the evolution of architectural forms from the earlier periods to be traced.

5. REFERENCE BOOKS.

Dieulafoy (M.).— "L'Art Antique de la Perse." 5 vols., folio. Paris, 1884-1889.

Flandin (E.) et Coste (P.)-—" Voyage en Perse." 6 vols., folio. Paris, 1844-1854.

Layard (A. H.). — " Monuments of Nineveh." 2 vols., folio. 1853.

Layard. — " Nineveh and its Palaces." 2 vols., 8vo. 1849.

Perrot and Chipiez. — " History of Art in Chaldasa and Assyria, Persia, Phrygia, and Judaea." 5 vols., 8vo. 1884-1892.

Place (Victor). — " Ninive et L'Assyrie." 3 vols., large folio. Paris, 1867-1870.

Ragozin (Z. A).— " Chaldea." 8vo. 1888. (A most interesting account of the people and their history.)

Texier (C.). — " L'Armenie, la Perse, et la Mesopotamie." 2 vols., large folio. Paris, 1842-1852.

Whyte-Melville.— "Sarchedon" (Historical Novel).

A visit to the Assyrian galleries and basement of the British Museum will afford much interest and information to the student and will impress him with the dignity and importance of the style.

14.

GREEK ARCHITECTURE.

" Fair Greece ! sad relic of departed worth ! Immortal, though no more ; though fallen, great ! "— BYRON. " AnH downward thence to latest days

The heritage of beauty fell ; And Grecian forms and Grecian lays Prolonged, their humanising spell, Till when new worlds for man to win The Atlantic riven waves disclose, The wildernesses there begin

To blossom with the Grecian rose." — LORD HOUGHTON.

i. INFLUENCES.

i. Geographical. — A reference to the map of Greece (No. 14) shows a country surrounded on three sides by the sea, possessed of many natural harbours, and convenient for the development of trade. By means of these havens .the Phoenician merchants in early times carried on commerce with the country. The influence of the sea in fostering national activity should not be forgotten — an influence to which Great Britain owes her present position. Again, the mountainous character of the country, with scarcely a road until Roman times, was calculated to isolate the inhabitants into small groups, and together with the tempting proximity of a whole multitude of islands, was instrumental in producing a hardy and adventurous people, who might be expected to make good colonists.

ii. Geological. — In Greece the principal mineral product was marble, the most monumental building material in existence, and one which favours purity of line and refinement in detail. This material is found in great abundance in various parts of Greece, e.g., in the mountains of Hymettus and Pentelicus, a few miles

46 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

from Athens, and in the islands of Paros and Naxo's. In the effort to obtain refinement of line and smoothness of surface where crude bricks were used, they were in many cases coated with a fine cement formed of marble dust and lime ; where stone was employed, as at Paestum and elsewhere, it appears also to have been coated with this marble cement, while marble itself was often treated in the same way, the cement being susceptible of a higher polish than the uncemented surface. The country was also rich in silver, copper, and iron.

iii. Climate. — The climate of Greece /s remarkable for the hot sun and the heavy rains, factors probably answerable for the porticos which were important features of the temples.

Greece enjoyed a position intermediate between the rigorous surroundings of the Northern nations and the relaxing condi- tions of Eastern life. Hence the Greek character combined the activity of the North with the passivity of the East in a way that conduced to the growth of a unique civilization.

iv. Religion. — The Greek religion was in the main a worship of natural phenomena (nature-worship, major and minor), of which the gods were personifications. There are, however, numerous traces of ancestor-worship, fetishism, and other primitive forms of religion. It should be borne in mind that Greek cults were always local, each town or district having its own divinities, ceremonies, and traditions. The priests had to perform their appointed rites, but were not an exclusive class, and often served only for a period, retiring afterwards into private life. Both men and women officiated, and a small bright "cella" took the place of the mysterious halls of the priest-ridden Egyptians (page 20).

The principal deities of the Greeks with their Roman names are as follows :—

Greek. Roman.

Zeus Chief of the gods and supreme ruler Jupiter (Jove).

Hera Wife of Zeus and goddess of marriage Juno.

(The son of Zeus and father ot ] yEsculapius. The god who pun- / ishes, heals and helps. Also the ^ Apollo, god of song and music, of the sun, t ( and founder of cities.

Hestia Hearth (sacred fire) Vesta.

Heracles Strength, power Hercules.

Athena .. . / ™^™> Power- Peace- and Pros- I Minerva,

Poseidon Sea Neptune.

Dionysos Wine, feasting, revelry Bacchus.

Demeter Earth, agriculture Ceres.

Artemis Hunting (goddess of the chase) Diana.

TT-,., ( Herald or messenger of the gods, ) ..

iermes 1 therefore eloquent with winged feet j Mercury«

Aphrodite Beauty Venus.

Nike Victory Victoria.

GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 47

v.' Social and Political. — The early inhabitants were known to the ancients under the name of Pelasgi. Their civilization belonged to the bronze age, as is evident from the remains of it found at different points round the ^Egean sea, viz.. in Crete, at Hissarlik in the Troad, at Mycenae, Tiryns, and elsewhere. It fell before the iron weapons and greater courage of invaders from the North, viz., the Achaeans or Homeric Greeks. The war against Troy affords proof of an early connection of the inhabitants of Greece with Asia. The Achaeans in their turn succumbed to a fresh influx of invaders from the North, hardy mountaineers called Dorians, who established themselves at Sparta and elsewhere in the Peloponnese. In classical times the land was peopled by lonians (i.e., the old Pelasgic popula- tion), ^Eolians (i.e., descendants of the Achaeans), and Dorians. Dorian Sparta and Ionian (Pelasgian) Athens are the two principal factors in the drama of Greece. It was not till some 500 years after the fall of Troy that the new Hellenic civiliza- tion was evinced in the construction of the Temple of Corinth (B.C. 650), one of the earliest Doric temples known.

As regards the people themselves, it is clear that the national games and religious festivals united them in reverence for their religion, and gave them that love for music, the drama, and the fine arts, and that emulation in manly sports and contests for which they were distinguished. It should be remembered that the people led an open-air life, for the public ceremonies and in many cases the administration of justice were carried on in the open air.

The Greeks, as already indicated, were great colonists, and emigration, especially to the coast of Asia Minor and the Mediterranean, was a government measure dating from about B.C. 700, undertaken not only to establish trade, but also to reduce the superfluous population, and to provide an outlet for party strife. It thus came about that the colonies were often peopled with citizens of a more energetic and go-ahead character than those of the mother country ; and it will therefore be found that many of the important buildings of Greek architecture, especially in the Ionic style, are in their colonies of Asia Minor, and that this connection with the East had some influence upon their architecture.

vi. Historical. — The poems of Homer, apparently a Pelasgic bard who sang for Achaean masters, give a picture of Greek life about the twelfth century B.C. Whether or no the war with Troy be an actual fact, the incidents related have a substratum of truth, and the tale probably arose out of the early conflicts of the Greeks in north-west Asia. The Hesiodic poems, circ. B.C. 750, depict the gloomy prospects and sordid life of the Boeotian peasantry at a time when art was almost in abeyance. For the

48 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

fourth and fifth centuries B.C. there are the more or less critical histories of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, and others. The cities of Greece had by this time settled down in their several forms of government — tyrannic, aristocratic, or democratic — and most of their colonies had been founded. The Persians under Cyrus, having captured Sardis, overthrew the kingdom of Lydia ; whereupon the Greeks of Asia Minor became subject to Persia. It was the revolt of these lonians in B.C. 499-493 which led to the Persian wars. The first great Persian invasion resulted in the victory of the Greeks at the battle of Marathon, B.C. 490 ; and the second invasion by Xerxes terminated in the naval victory of Salamis (B.C. 480). National exaltation caused by the defeats of the Persians is largely responsible for the fact that all the important temples now found in Greece were built in the " fifty years " which succeeded the battles of Salamis and Plataea. The wonderfully rapid growth of Athens excited the jealousy of the slower Spartans, and the Peloponnesian war, which followed, lasted from B.C. 431 to 404. The rule of Pericles (B.C. 444-429) marks the climax of Athenian prosperity. The Peloponnesian war left Sparta the chief power in Greece ; but her arbitrary and high-handed conduct roused other states against her, and the supremacy passed successively to Thebes and Macedonia. The latter had hitherto been considered a half-barbarian state; but thanks to the ability of Philip King of Macedonia and of his son Alexander the Great, it rose to a leading position in Greece. In B.C. 334 Alexander set out on his great expedition, and in six years he subdued the Persian Empire, having besieged and taken Tyre en route and received the submission of Egypt, where he founded and gave his name to the famous city of Alexandria. His conquests extended to Northern India, and the effect of these was most important, for Hellenic civilization was thus introduced far and wide throughout Asia. On his death at Babylon in B.C. 323, the empire he had created was split up among his Generals, Egypt falling to the share of Ptolemy, who founded a dynasty (page 12). In Greece itself the formation of leagues, as the Achaean and ^Etolian, between cities was attempted ; but the Roman interference had commenced, and gradually increased until in B.C. 146 Greece became a Roman province. The isolation and mutual animosity of the Greek communities afforded all too good an opportunity for the intrusion of the better-centralized and more united power of Rome. En revanche, where arts not arms were concerned,

" Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes Intulit agresti Latio."

GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 49

2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER.

Much as Greek culture owed to the preceding Oriental civilizations, still the change effected by the Greeks has so profoundly influenced the development of European progress that Greece must be regarded as the veritable source of literary and artistic inspiration. As a recent writer puts it, " Whate'er we hold of beauty, half is hers." Greek architecture stands alone in being accepted as beyond criticism, and as being an obligatory study for students of otherwise very different principles.

The character of the early or Mycenaean period, also known as the Pelasgic, Cyclopean or Primitive period, is very different from the later or Hellenic period, and, as mentioned on page 53, con- sists of rough walling of large blocks of stone, often unworked. In this period the Greeks often had recourse to the corbel system, to inclined blocks over openings, and even to the true arch.

The Hellenic Period which followed the Mycenaean is dealt with specially here because it is notable for the development of the trabeated style which the Greeks approved and developed, and which is recognised as the special Grecian type. The following diagram emphasizes the main facts':— Greeks. Etruscans.

Greek. \ Roman. / Gothic.

Trabeated. Trabeated and Arcuated. Arcuated.

This style was essentially columnar and trabeated (trabs = a beam), and the character was largely influenced by the use of finely-dressed marble.

Stability was achieved solely by the judicious observance of the laws of gravity ; the weights acting only vertically, and consequently needing but vertical resistances.

Stone or marble lintels being difficult to obtain of any great length, the columns or supporting members had to be placed com- paratively close together, a method of design which called for a certain simplicity of treatment characteristic of the style. Mortar was unnecessary because it would have been of no use for dis- tributing the pressure between the stone or marble blocks of which the walls and columns were constructed, as the beds of these were rubbed to a very fine surface and united with iron cramps. Further, careful study of the materials at hand was made, for Choisy found in the temples at ^Egina and Paestum (Nos. 20, 28), that the stones were laid on their natural bed or otherwise, according to the pressures they had to bear ; thus the architraves, which had to support a cross pressure, were placed with the planes of their beds vertically, as they were then better able to withstand a cross-strain, and a wider intercolumniation could also be obtained.

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GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 51

The general architectural character of the early works of the Hellenic period is heavy and severe, the influence of the Mycenaean period being apparent ; but a gradual change towards refinement and beauty took place, and in the later periods the proportions of the columns were more slender, and the mouldings more refined. Unity of effect in the larger temples was obtained by the colon- nade surrounding the shrine-cell, forming a contrast with the number of courts, halls, and chambers, decreasing in size from the entrance pylons, comprised in a typical Egyptian temple. Greek buildings have the qualities of harmony, simplicity and unity, because of the excellence of their proportions, their truthful and apparent construction, and the employment of one constructive principle.

Many refinements in design were practised in the best period of Greek art, in order to correct optical illusions, as has been discovered by the late Mr. Penrose in many temples,, and especially in the Parthenon. The long lines of the architrave, stylobate, pediments and other features, which, if built straight in reality, would appear to sag or drop in the middle of their length, were formed with slight convex lines. For instance, in the Parthenon the stylobate has an upward curvature towards its centre of 2-61 inches on the east and west fronts, and of 4-39 inches on the flanks. The vertical features were made to incline inwards in order to correct the tendency which such features have of appearing to fall outwards at the top. Thus, in the Parthenon the axes of the outer columns lean inwards 2*65 inches, and would meet if produced at a distance of a mile above ground. The faces of the architrave (No. 71, c) were also given an inward inclination. The shafts usually have an entasis which, in the case of the Parthenon column, amounts to about three-quarters of an inch in a height of 34 feet, and is shown on No. 710.

The close spacing of the angle columns has been already referred to, and these were increased in thickness as it was found that seen against the sky owing to irradiation (No. 71,6) they would appear thinner than those seen against the darker background formed by the cella wall.

According to Pennethorne a further correction is pointed out in an inscription from the Temple of Priene (No. 71, A), where according to Vitruvius, Bk. vi., chap. 2, the letters at the top of the inscription were increased in size, and the letters at the lower part decreased so that they might all appear of one size when seen from the point of sight.

Sculpture and carving of the highest class completed the effec- tiveness of their most important buildings, and these were in- fluenced very largely by the hard, fine-grained marble employed, which rendered possible the delicate adjustment and refined treatment characteristic of this period.

E 2

GREEK EXAMPLES. I.

CLCWlTIOM OF. PJgncg.(IF..ffi.STHErtOM.

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GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 53

Color and gilding were applied very largely by the Greeks both to their buildings and sculpture, and some of the remains which have been lately excavated at Athens, Delphi, and elsewhere still exhibit traces of their original coloring.

The Greeks developed the so-called " Orders of Architecture," the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian being used by them. To these, in later times, the Romans added the Tuscan and Composite, thus completing the " five orders of architecture." An " order " in Greek and Roman architecture consists of the column or support, including base and capital, and the entablature, or part supported. The latter is divided into the architrave or lowest portion ; the frieze, or middle member, and the cornice or upper- most part. The proportions of these parts vary in the different orders, as do the mouldings and decorations applied (No. 38).

The origin and evolution of the different parts of the three Greek orders are dealt with later under their respective headings, but the characteristics are well expressed in the following lines : —

" First, unadorn'd,

And nobly plain, the manly Doric rose ; Th' Ionic, then, with decent matron grace, Her airy pillar heaved ; luxuriant last, The rich Corinthian spread her wanton wreath. The whole so measured, so lessen' d oft" By fine proportion, that the marble piles, Form'd to repel the still or stormy waste Of rolling ages, light as fabrics look That from the wand aerial rise."— THOMSON.

The late J. Addington Symonds well observed that Art is commonly evolved through three stages: (i) The ardent and inspired embodiment of a great idea — this gives strength and grandeur ; (2) the original inspiration tempered by increasing knowledge and a clearer appreciation of limits — the result being symmetry ; (3) ebbing inspiration, details being elaborated, and novelties introduced to make up for its loss — this occasions a brilliant but somewhat disproportioned style. This progress can be traced in all departments of Greek life. In architecture, there is the solid strength of the Doric capital, the clear-cut beauty of the Ionic, and the florid detail of the Corinthian, in poetry the rugged grandeur of ^Eschylus, the exquisite symmetry of Sopho- cles, and the brilliant innovations of Euripides, and in sculpture, an Ageladas, a Pheidias, and a Praxiteles.

3. EXAMPLES.

The Mycense-an Period has already been defined as extend- ing to shortly after the war with Troy, though in the Islands (e.g., Cyprus, Crete, and Delos), it lasted on till the eighth century B.C. ; but remains of a pre-Mycensean period called Min6an, dating

54 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

back to about B.C. 3000, have been discovered by- Dr. Arthur Evans, of which the Minoan Palace at Knossos in Crete is an example. The architectural remains of these periods include town-walls, palaces, and tombs. The walls are of three kinds of masonry: (i) "Cyclopean" i.e., masses of rock roughly quarried and piled on each other, without cramp-irons, but with clay mortar, the interstices between the larger being filled with smaller blocks. Examples at Argos, Tiryns, Mycenae, Knossos in Crete, and Athens. (2) Rectangular, i.e., carefully hewn rectangular blocks arranged in regular courses, but the/ joints between stones in the same course are not always vertical. Examples at Mycenae in the entrances and towers, and the entrance passage in "tholos" or beehive-tombs. (3) Polyzonal, i.e., many sided blocks accurately worked so as to fit together. Examples at Mycenae, wall of Acropolis at Athens, and Cnidus. Thus all three styles occur in structures of " Mycenaean " age, although in out-of-the- way places, as in Caria, they survived for centuries. The first is seemingly the parent of the other two : but the common assump- tion that polygonal is later than rectangular masonry cannot be proved with regard to the Pelasgic period.

In addition various characteristic features were used : —

Corbels. — Sometimes horizontal courses were employed pro- jecting one beyond the other till the apex was reached, producing either a triangular opening as is found above the doorways of the tholos-tombs (No. 15 A, E), or an apparent arch as at CEniades in Acarnania, Assos, and the gallery at Tiryns, or a dome-shaped roof as in the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae (No. 15 A, B).

Inclined Blocks. — Sometimes inclined blocks forming triangular headed openings were employed as in the early, perhaps pre- historic, sanctuary on Mount Ocha in Eubcea, and the ancient shrine of Apollo on Mount Cynthus (Delos).

Arches. — A few examples of Greek arcuated work are extant, viz., a Cyclopean arch at Cnidus, an arch with a key-stone (partially dropped) in Acarnania, and an arched gateway at CEniades. A water-channel or drain at Athens, which crosses the town from east to west, is partly arcuated and partly roofed with advancing corbels. The barrel- vault ("kamara") occurs in sub- terranean funeral chambers in Macedonia, and also in the vaulted passages at the theatre of Sicyon, the tunnel leading to the Stadium at Olympia and other places.

The " tholos " or beehive-tombs at Mycenae, Orchomenos, and Amyclae were originally modelled on underground huts for the living (Vitruv. ii., i), the precise shape being found by Prof. Adler in Phrygia. At Mycenae the tholoi are confined to the lower city as opposed to the shaft-graves of the upper city. The largest and best preserved is the so-called " Treasury of Atreus " (No. 15). It consists of a long entrance passage or " dromos," 2oJfeetJ>road by

GREEK ARCHITECTURE.

55

ii 5 feetkmg, a large vaulted chamber, about 50 feet broad by 50 feet rn^7ali3~a~small square tomb-chamber adjoining. A similar tomb at Orchomenos in Bceotia has a magnificently ornamented ceiling in its sepulchral chamber, while another at Menidi in Attica has no less than five superposed lintels to support the mass of earth above it (cf. section of Great Pyramid, No. 5 D). These tombs belong to the second stage in the evolution of the dwelling-house, the complete series being (a) natural cave (No. 2 H) ; (b) artificial cave below ground ; (c) artificial cave above ground, i.e., hut (No. 2 E). The famous Gate of Lions on the Acropolis at Mycenae also belongs to this period (No. 15 E).

The Hellenic Period contains all the principal temples and monuments which were erected between the years B.C. 700 and the Roman occupation B.C. 146. The masterpieces of Greek architecture, however, were all erected in the short space of about 150 years, viz., between the defeat of the Persians, B.C. 480, and the death of Alexander, B.C. 323.

Many of the Greek cities were upon or in the immediate vicinity of a hill which was known as the Acropolis (Greek = an upper city), and formed a citadel upon which the principal temples or treasure-houses were erected for safety. A model of the Acropolis at Athens in the British Museum will give a good general idea of the disposition of the important buildings placed thereon, as also the plan No. 17. Other great centres of archi- tectural activity were Olympia, Delphi, Psestum in South Italy, Sicily, and Asia Minor.

IQO ... Q 100 200 30O 400 500

56 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

The Temples formed the most important class of buildings erected during this period, and a general description applicable to all is therefore given.

Their points of difference with Egyptian examples have been already referred to. (Pages 15, 21, 28). They were built with special regard to external effect, and were ornamented with sculpture of the highest class in order to form fitting shrines for the deities in whose honour they were erected. They were generally placed in a "temenos" or sacred enclosure, and consisted of a "naos" or cell, usually oblong in plan/ in which was placed the statue of the god or goddess ; a treasury or chamber beyond and a front and rear portico, with flanking colonnades, the whole generally raised on a stylobate of three steps.

In the larger temples were internal colonnades of columns placed over each other to support the roof (Nos. 18 H, 20, 23, 23, 28 A, B, and 31). On the two end fagades above the columns a triangular- shaped pediment, usually but not always filled with sculpture, terminated the simple span roof (Nos. 16 A, 20, 21, 23, 26, 27, 28, 30, and 31 A). These roofs were constructed of timber and covered with marble slabs ; the ends of the overlapped joints being provided with ante-fixae at the eaves (Nos. 16 D, 20 H, j, and 44 N). The door was almost always placed in the centre of the end wall, behind the portico of columns, and frequently planned so that the sun might enter and light up the statue opposite.

The general absence of windows in the temples, that at Agrigentum being the only exception (No. 28 o), has given rise , to many theories as to how light was admitted. The method of lighting by a clerestory concealed in the roof which is favoured by Mr. Fergusson (No. 25 A), can be seen practically in Sir Arthur | Blomfield's restoration of S. Peter, Eaton Square, London. Another theory by Herr Bdtticher is also shown (No. 25 B).

The temple was occasionally " hypaethral," that is to say, there was an opening in the roof which admitted air and light to the central portion of the naos or cell. The use of an hypaethral opening has been often refuted, but it appears to have been used in the larger temples as in that of Jupiter Olympius at Athens (No. 1 8 j) (see Vitruvius), and in the Ionic Temple of Apollo-/ Didymaeus, near Miletus, as mentioned in Strabo (lib. xiv.).. The temple was the house of the local god, being merely a glorified dwelling-house, and some hold that the opening in the centre of an ordinary house must have had some counterpart in that of the divinity. Both alike were developed out of the smoke- hole of the primitive hut ; the whole development being ably traced in an article on " domus" in Daremberg et Saglio, " Diet, des Antiquites." An extant hypaethral opening is that of the Pantheon, Rome (Nos. 54, 55).

Many authorities hold that light was obtained solely through

GREEK EXAMPLES. II

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58 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

the doorways, others that the transparent Parian marble roofing slabs would admit sufficient light.

Artificial illumination by means of lamps may also have been employed.

The different kinds of temples are classified, by the disposi- tion of their columns, and a sheet of plans (No. 18) is given in order to indicate the general distribution of parts, and also to show the evolution from the simple shrine-cell of the smaller examples. The different methods of spacing the columns one from the other is shown in No. 39, R, s, T./U, v.

i. Di-style in antis at one end (the simplest form, having two

columns between antae). Ex. Temple of Rhamnus(No. i8A).

ii. Di-style in antis